Assam History for Competitive Exam

May 19, 2025

Complete Assam History guide for IAS, IPS, ACS & APS exams. Covers history, culture, literature, politics & more in an exam-ready format.

Table of Contents

Assam History for Competitive Exam

FOR

IAS, IPS, ACS, APS Etc.

Part A: History of Assam

General Subject Paper on Assam

(History, Heritage, Culture)

Syllabus:

Major Landmarks in the History of Assam, Major Dynasties, their Administrative and Revenue systems, Socio-cultural Issues, Freedom Movement, Political Awakening and Integration, Salient features of Architecture and Monuments, Arts, Paintings and Handicrafts, Important Works of literature, Fairs, Festivals, Folk Music and Folk Dances, Culture, Tradition and Heritage, Religious Movements, Leading Personalities.

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Index

Major landmarks in the history of Assam
Major dynasties of Assam

2.1 Kamata Kingdom

2.2 Bhuyan Chiefs

2.3 Ahom Kingdom

Ahoms vs Mughals

The Battle of Saraighat

2.4 Chutiya Kingdom

2.5 Kachari Kingdom

British Annexation: Colonial Assam
Bengal Presidency (1826-1873)
Chief Commissioner’s Province (1874-1905) 6. Assam under Lt. Governor (1906-1912) 7. Assam Legislative Council (1912–1920)
Dyarchy in Assam (1921-1937)
Assam Legislative Assembly (1937-1947)
Assam after Independence

10.1 United Liberation Front of Asom

10.2 Bodoland Statehood Movemen

Salient features of architecture and monuments of Assam
Historic Monuments of Assam
Paintings and Handicrafts
Assam Arts & Crafts
Dances of Assam
Assam Fairs & Festivals
Assamese music
Assam Languages and literature
Sankardeva and the Neo-Vaishnavite Movement in Assam
History of Sonitpur
Cotton University (Earlier known as Cotton College) 22. Leading Personalities of Assam

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Assam History

The history of Assam has passed several stages of development to reach to its present state. Prior to the 12th century AD., there was lack of historical documents and other records on Assam; hence historians had to rely on different sources to construct the history of Assam. References about this region were found in the Puranas, Sanskrit literature, Buddhist literature and accounts of foreign travellers. Archaeological sources like monuments, numismatics, epigraphy and pottery have also contributed to our understanding of the history and culture of Assam till the 13th century AD.

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Major landmarks in the history of Assam:

The history of Assam has passed several stages of development to reach to its present state. The history of Assam can be divided into four eras.

The ancient era began in the 4th century with the mention of Kamarupa in

Samudragupta’s inscriptions on the Allahabad pillar and the establishment of the Kamarupa kingdom.

The medieval era began with the attacks from the Bengal Sultanate, the first of

which took place in 1206 by Bakhtiyar Khilji as mentioned in the Kanai-boroxiboa rock inscription, after the breakup of the ancient kingdom and the sprouting of medieval kingdoms and chieftain-ships in its place.

The colonial era began with the establishment of British control after the Treaty of Yandaboo in 1826.
Post-colonial era began in 1947 after the Independence of India.

The ancient name of Assam was Pragiyotishpura – the city of Eastern Light, which later changed to Kamrupa – the land where Kamdeva, the god of love was reborn. Assam

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traces her history back to at least 2500 years B.C., when high civilization flourished in the land.

During the era of Mahabharata, this land was ruled by Non Aryans, the first known ruler being Mahiranga Danava of Danava dynasty. Bhagadutta, son of Naraka who participated in the great Kurukshetra war as an ally of the Kauravas, was the most powerful among the Danava Kings.

In the mid 7 Century A.D. the most illustrious monarch of Varmana dynasty Kumar Bhaskar Varmana raised ancient Assam from obscurity and placed her in the forefront of Indian politics. Kumar Bhaskar Varmana was a close friend of King Harshavardhana. During this period Hiuen Tsang came to Assam and wrote about Assam and her people.

The dynasty of Pralamba assumed power at around 800 A.D. There were around twenty rulers from this dynasty. By 1000 A.D, the Pal dynasty came into focus with the rule of Brahma Pal. Several rulers from this dynasty ruled till the 11 century. By 1100 A.D., there again developed a reign of confusion in the kingdom of Kamrupa with no definite ruler. The kingdom of Kamarupa disintegrated, resulting in the emergence of many petty chiefs at different places.

The Ahoms belonged to the Tai or Shan section of the Siamese – Chinese branch of the Sino-Tibetans. They arrived in Assam through North Burma, along the Noa Dihing River. During their six hundred years rule, they were able to consolidate their power by bringing the different rulers or chiefs under their dominion.

When the Ahoms were consolidating their position in Assam, they came into conflict with the ruling Kachari, Chutiya and Jaintia kingdoms. The Chutiyas were in power in northeastern Assam and parts of Arunachal Pradesh. During the period of Sukapha the country comprised of Buridihing in the east, Dikhou in the South, in the western side, there was river Brahmaputra and Naga Hills in the east. Swargadeo Suhungmung extended its boundary up to Karatoya River and Dhaca and makes the Ahom state a great kingdom by defeating the Mughals in the Battle of Itakhuli, King Gadadhar Singha extended the Ahom territory up to Hajo.

With the treaty of Yandaboo in 1826, the fate of Assam passed into the hands of the British. Now began a history in Assam which was a series of annexation and secessions. The British annexed Cachar in 1832 and Jaintia Hills in 1835.

In 1874, Assam became a separate province with Shillong as its capital. Sylhet was merged with East Bengal on partition of India.

The first Governor of independent Assam was Sir Muhammad Saleh Akbar Hydari and Chief Minister was Gopinath Bordoloi who witnessed the foundations laid of Gauhati University (1948), Gauhati High Court (1948) and Guwahati station of All India Radio (AIR). When Gopinath Bordoloi passed away in 1950, Bishnu Ram Medhi took over as the next Chief Minister of Assam. During his tenure from 1950 to 1957, the First Five-Year Plan

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was started, Panchayat system of governance was introduced and the agricultural sector got more importance.

Bimla Prasad Chaliha was the third chief minister from 1957 to 1970. In 1958th the 66th session of Congress was held at Jalukbari, Guwahati. The Saraighat Bridge was constructed over the Brahmaputra river (1965), an Oil refinery was established at Noonmati, Guwahati in 1962 during his time. In 1959-60 the famous language revolt took place in Assam, and as a result Assamese became the official language of the State and Bengali also enjoyed the same status in the Cachar District of Barak Valley.

Mohendra Mohan Choudhury assumed the mantle of chief minister in 1970. The foundation of Bongaigaon Petro-Chemicals, Paper Mill at Jogighopa and Jute factory at Silghat in Nagaon were laid in his tenure. In 1972 Sarat Chandra Sinha came to power after Congress secured absolute majority. In 1974 the capital was finally shifted to Dispur in Guwahati.

The Assam Movement (1979-1985) was a popular movement against illegal immigrants in Assam. The movement, led by All Assam Students Union (AASU) and the All Assam Gana Sangram Parishad (AAGSP), developed a program of protests and demonstration to compel the Indian government to identify and expel illegal, (mostly Bangladeshisi), immigrants and protect and provide constitutional, legislative and administrative safeguards to the indigenous Assamese people. The agitation programs were largely non-violent, but the Nellie massacre was a case of extreme violence. The agitation program ended in August 1985 following the Assam Accord, which was signed by leaders of AASU-AAGSP and the Government of India.

The Assam Accord (1985) was a Memorandum of Settlement (MOS) signed between representatives of the Government of India and the leaders of the Assam Movement in New Delhi on 15 August 1985. A six-year agitation demanding identification and deportation of illegal immigrants was launched by the All Assam Students’ Union (AASU) in 1979. It culminated with the signing of the Assam Accord.

Today Assam has an area of 78,438 square kilometers. It consists of thirty four districts and is credited to be the most populous state in the entire Northeast India.

Major dynasties of Assam

Assam was ruled by various dynasties—the Pala, Koch, Kachari, and Chutiya—and there was constant warfare among the princes until the coming of the Ahom people in the 13th century.

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Kamata Kingdom

The rise of the Kamata kingdom marked the end of the ancient period in the history of Assam and the beginning of the medieval period.

The Kamata Kingdom emerged in western Kamarupa probably when Sandhya, a ruler of Kamarupanagara, moved his capital west to Kamatapur sometime after 1257 CE. Since it originated in the old seat of the Kamarupa kingdom, and since it covered most of the western parts of it, the kingdom is also sometimes called as Kamarupa-Kamata.

It covered a region corresponding to present-day undivided districts of Kamrup, Goalpara, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar district in India and Rangpur and northern parts of Mymensingh in Bangladesh.

Biswa Singha removed Baro-Bhuyan confederacy and established the Koch dynasty soon, in 1515

The Koches were the last to call themselves Kamateshwars (the rulers of Kamata), but their influence and expansions were so extensive and far-reaching that their kingdom is sometimes called the Koch Kingdom. In the same century the kingdom split in two: Koch Bihar and Koch Hajo.

The eastern kingdom, Koch Hajo, was soon absorbed into the Ahom kingdom in the 17th century. The western portion of the Kamata kingdom, Koch Bihar continued to be ruled by a branch of the Koch dynasty and later merged with the Indian territory after the independence of India from the British domain. The boundary between Koch Bihar and Koch Hajo is approximately the boundary between West Bengal and Assam today.

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Bhuyan Chiefs

In 13th century Brahmaputra valley the system of Baro-Bhuyan Raj (confederacy) was formed from the petty chieftains the remaining fragments of the erstwhile Kamarupa state.

They occupied the region west of the Kachari kingdom in the south bank of the Brahmaputra river, and west of the Chutiya kingdom in the north bank. These included areas of Nagaon, Darrang and Sonitpur districts. Subsequently, the Baro Bhuyan rules ended in the 16th century as they were squeezed between the Kachari kingdom and the Kamata kingdom in the west and were slowly overpowered by the expanding Ahom kingdom in the east.

The boundary between the tract ruled by these chiefs and the kingdom of Kamarupa altered from time to time. A powerful prince might bring many of them under his control, but they regained there independence under weak prince. These chiefs were remembered in Assamese legends as the Bara-Bhuyans.

The Bhuyan chiefs, who were undoubtedly the feudal barons of the later Kamrupa rather Kamatapur combined against the common foe, attacked Danial’s Garrison at Hajo and destroyed it.

Thereafter, for about a decade or more, there was not a common king for Kamatapur in ancient Kamarupa empire, and the petty Bhuyans again became independent and ruled the country.

In 1623 A.D. the Bara-Bhuyans again came to declare their independence and one of the Bhuyan chiefs Uday declared independence during the reign of Pratap Singha.

A great number of followers arrested and executed and the followers getting frustrated submitted themselves to the power. Thenceforth the Bhuyans between the Subansiri and the Bharali, were bereft of all their powers.

Ahom Kingdom

The rise and fall of kingdoms like the Khen Dynasty, Koch Dynasty and the Kachari and the Chutiya Kingdoms was seen in medieval Assam. During this era, a major kingdom called the Ahom Kingdom evolved, which revolutionized the entire cultural and traditional scenario of the state.

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Ahom Dynasty of Assam, was founded by Tai price Prince Chaolung Sukapha, who entered the Brahmaputra valley in 1228. The prince came from south China’s Yunnan provision from a town called Mong Mao Lung, with his 9000 companions.

The Ahoms created a new state by taking over the older political system of the bhuiyans (landlords). They annexed the kingdoms of the Chhatigar and Koch-Hajo, Sutiyas, the Miris and subjugated many other tribes. Ahoms had expanded their influence and built a large state by the 16th Century. The system of governance established by Ahoms, was similar to the system of Tai- Namchao (south west China). It was a monarchial system under the Tai- Ahom rule

It was a form of hereditary monarchy with a Council of Ministers and a Great Council of chief nobles and officers of the state. The king was all in all in matters of major importance of the State. Their society was divided into clans or khels.

Powerful council of Ministers

The Ahom dynasty of Assam was not run in an autocratic fashion, with King being the one man authority. It was an inclusive government, king with 5 ministers and not autocracy. Ministers had the power to keep a check and ensure that king delivers his duties. They also had the power to remove the king, if he was not doing his job.

The king could be appointed only with the concurrence of the patra mantris (council of ministers Burhagohain, Borgohain, Borpatrogohain, Borbarua and Borphukan). During three periods in the 14th century, the kingdom had no kings when acceptable candidates were not found. The ministers could remove unacceptable kings, and it used to involve executing the erstwhile king.

Culture of tolerance and respect towards others

The Ahoms assimilated with the existing culture of the local people in many aspects and this is also a key reason of their prosperity. They accepted the culture, religion and language of the conquered people.

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The Tai language, the Ahom religion, rituals, dress, food habits and sociocultural institutions gradually passed into oblivion or became a mix of original and acquired. The Hindu religion, culture, life style and Assamese language gradually replaced the original Tai culture. Initially the inscriptions of Ahom were in Tai-Ahom language. Later they appear in a bigot form, and finally in Assamese or Sanskrit.

Ahoms didn’t try to ruin the existing culture, didn’t try to convert the locals to their practices. They in fact added their bits to the Indian culture and made it more richer, by respecting it and by being a part of it.

The kings embraced Hinduism, or rather Shaivism and Shakti cult and built a lot of temples in Upper Assam. Ahoms displayed great respect towards all religion and a lot of families used to follow dual religious practices. Ahoms encouraged inter cultural marriages and selective adaptation of cultural traits. cultural traits.

Decentralisation

Ahom society was divided into clans and with the expansion of the kingdom, the clans moved and took charge of the designated territory. For instance Lachit was responsible for one part of the Ahom Kingdom and had both judicial and executive powers to rule the region. One can say it is a form of local administration under able hands.

Owing to the dispersal of clans across the region; local lineage started replacing the clans. The local lineage was recognised by the King and they enjoyed similar powers. These changes took place within the realm of Ahom traditional social structure and ensured a greater stability to the structure

Ahom queens (Kunworis) played important roles in the matter of state. They were officially designated in a gradation of positions, called the Bor Kuwori (Chief Queen), Parvatia Kuwori, Raidangia Kuwori, Tamuli Kuwori, etc. who were generally daughters of Ahom noblemen and high officials. One way in which the importance of the queens can be seen is that many of them are named on coins; typically the king’s name would be on the obverse of the coin and the queen’s on the reverse.

Ahoms vs Mughals

While the Mughals were an invincible force everywhere, they never succeeded in getting a foothold in the North East India. The North East was an attractive proposition for the Mughals, rich Brahmaputra flowing through many countries and hence a great trade opportunity, and by controlling this region, one could control the trade route. The region was fertile and it meant great agricultural bounty.

The story of Ahom dynasty of Assam vs Mughals is incomplete without the story of Lachit Borphukan. He was one of the five Patra Mantri (minister) in the Ahom Kingdom. He was the ruler of Lower Assam during that period.

From 1615 to 1682, the Mughals attacked North East 17 times. In 1667, the

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Ahoms lost Guwahati (Pragjyotishpur) to Mughals and had to pay a war indemnity of 3 lacs rupees and ninety elephants. Two Ahom princesses were taken as hostages by the Mughal Army. King Chakradhwaj Singha selected Lachit Borphukan to lead the forces and get Guwahati back from Mughal captivity.

Lachit raised the army and seized Guwahati from the Mughals. He was sure that Mughals will be back soon, and hence immediately started preparing for the next battle. . He was right, Mughals came knocking at their doors with a much bigger and powerful army.

The Battle of Saraighat

The Mughals did not take this defeat lightly and came back with 30000 soldiers, 15000 archers, 18000 Turkish cavalry, 5000 gunmen and over 1000 canons. This was a mighty fleet and defeating them looked like an uphill task. Lachit was brave and a master mind. He forced the Mughal army to fight at the Brahmaputra River. Lachit had identified the weakest link in the Mughal force their navy. The Ahom army built multiple mud embankments around Guwahati so that the Mughals were forced to attack them through Saraighat using their Navy.

For the Ahoms, the knowledge about the terrain was a big advantage. During the battle, there was a time when Lachit Borphukan fell terribly ill and the morale of the Ahom army started dwindling. His response to his team was very clear “If you want to flee, go ahead… the King has assigned a responsibility to me and I will do it well irrespective of my health. Let the Mughals take me away. You report to the king that his general fought well following his orders”. His soldiers rallied and a fiercely fought battle resulted in a victory over the mammoth Mughal army. The general was not fighting for fame, religion or the King. He was fighting for his motherland and its people. Every year, 24th of November is celebrated as Lachit Diwas in Assam.

Ahoms and their Navy

Ahoms always had a war strategy in place and that was about keeping invaders west of the river. The paik system ensured that each family in the Brahmaputra valley had to depute the male members whenever there was a war or any other extraordinary situation. This implied a backup of army men whenever the need arise.

The Ahoms made excellent use of the terrain and developed perhaps India’s only “river specific” navy! Inside-out knowledge of the terrain was what made the guerrilla warfare highly effective and they called it “Daga Yuddha”! Even towards the end of Ahom dynasty, their navy had more than 7000 sailors. There were sophisticated docks for boat building. They also knew how to build bastions (Pani Garh) in the middle of the river without using any existing island.

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The Ahom war boats were smaller in size, but made up of wood from a specific tree, which would not sink even if overloaded. Each boat had a life of more than 10 years and was equipped with guns and artillery. The small boats were easy to manoeuvre in the river as compared to the large boats used by the Mughals. The Ahom boat men were expert in steering the boats in the battle field (river).

Ahom Art and Architecture

The Ahom dynasty of Assam, encouraged Art and art forms including theatre. Poets and scholars were given land grants.

Upper Assam especially Sibsagar is a great place to understand the Ahom architechture. Tolatol Ghor and Karen Ghor of Rangpur Palace is main architectural landmark of Ahom Kingdom of Assam. This structure was built of baked bricks and organic cements made with sticky rice and eggs of ducks. Some parts of the structure though are dilapidated, but even then the art form stands out. The Ahom King Rudra Singh had built an amphitheatre where the Bihu performances were held every year during the Rongali Bihu (around April 14th). The festival welcomes the spring and the new year and it rose to fame from Rongghar.

Ahom cuisine

The non-vegetarian delicacies are a must try and the South East Asian influences in their food is quite prominent. Juit pura gahori mankho (fried pork) and pork rice along with rice beer is a staple in Assam. For the vegetarians, rice cake(peetha) is something unique to Assam.

Ahom History (Buranji)

The greatest contribution of the Ahoms to the culture of the Assam was the compiling of chronicles, which were first written in the Ahom language and after that in both Ahom and Assamese. All of the important political events were recorded in the chronicles of Buranjis.

The Decline of Ahom Dynasty of Assam

The Ahom dynasty of Assam ruled the North East for 600 years and had amalgamated well with the society. They succumbed to the internal conflicts, higher orientation towards one faith and intolerance towards others, coupled with external invasion and weak leadership. Some of the key factors for the downfall of Ahom dynasty were-

Moamoria rebellion:

A religious-political rebellion against the Ahoms and their cold shoulder attitude towards the Koch, Kachhari and Motok tribes. The growing influence of Neo Vaisnavism made popular by Srimanta Sankardev, didn’t go well with the Ahoms. While the neo Vaishnavism was an offshoot of Hinduism, the Ahoms considered it as a political threat as

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they were following the Shaivite and Shakti cult. When Ahoms had established their rule in India, they had succeeded because of their flexibility and respect towards local belief and the same people now had become intolerant towards the new.

Weak leaders and Economic decline:

Assam was blessed with fertile land and the mighty Brahmaputra which was the lifeline of trade. However, by the 2nd half of 18th century, the leaders were not able to develop the economy and drive prosperity through trade and agriculture.

Internal conflict and Burmese invasion:

Burmese invaded Assam thrice, between the years 1817 to 1826 and made the economy weaker. There was infighting amongst various clans and Burmese King Bodoupaya, invaded and robbed the coffers of the state

Treaty of Yandabo, 1826 and Great Britain expanding its influence:

The British in the garb of joining hands with the Ahoms to defeat the Burmese, annexed Assam into British East India colony.

Ahom dynasty of Assam, ruled for almost 600 years, and then were wiped out during the British Era. The Ahom community still exists in Assam and the elderly people feel proud to talk about their glorious past and contribution to the region.

Ahoms have served the country for almost 6 centuries and never succumbed to the Mughal forces.

Chutiya Kingdom

The Chutia Kingdom was a late medieval state that developed around Sadiya in present Assam and adjoining areas in Arunachal Pradesh. It extended over almost the entire region of present districts of Lakhimpur, Dhemaji, Tinsukia and some parts of Dibrugarh in Assam, as well as the plains and foothills of Arunachal Pradesh. The kingdom fell in 1523-24 to the Ahom Kingdom after a series of conflicts and the capital area ruled by the Chutia rulers became the administrative domain of the office of Sadia Khowa Gohain of the Ahom kingdom.

The Chutia people are a indigenous people associated with the historic Chutia kingdom. The Chutia kingdom’s territory encompassed the present Lakhimpur, Dhemaji, Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts of Assam; as well as the plains and foothills of Arunachal Pradesh.

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However, after the kingdom was absorbed into the Ahom kingdom in 1523 – 24, the Chutia population was widely dispersed in the entire Upper Assam as well as Central Assam.

They constitute one of the core groups that form the Assamese people.

The Chutia kingdom was one among several rudimentary states (Ahom, Dimasa, Koch, Jaintia etc.) that emerged from tribal political formations in the region, between the 13th and the 16th century, after the fall of the Kamarupa kingdom. Among these, the Chutia state was the most advanced, with its rural industries, trade, surplus economy and advanced Sanskritisation. It is not exactly known as to the system of agriculture adopted by the Chutias, but it is believed that they were settled cultivators. After the Ahoms annexed the kingdom in 1523, the Chutia state was absorbed into the Ahom state — the nobility and the professional classes were given important positions in the Ahom officialdom and the land was resettled for wet rice cultivation.

Foundation and Polity

Though there is no doubt on the Chutia polity, the origins of this kingdom is obscure. It is generally held that the Chutias established a state around Sadiya and contiguous areas in the 13th century before the advent of the Ahoms in 1228.

Buranjis, the Ahom chronicles, mention the presence of the Chutia state, and a confrontation during the reign of Sutuphaa (1369-1379). The earliest Chutia king in the epigraphic records is Nandin or Nandisvara, from the later half of the 14th century, mentioned in a grant by his son Satyanarayana who nevertheless draws his royal lineage from Asuras.

The mention of Satyanarayana as having the shape of his maternal uncle (which is also an indirect reference to the same Asura/Daitya lineage) may also constitute evidence of matrilineality of the Chutia ruling family, or that their system was not exclusively patrilineal.

On the other hand, a later king Durlabhnarayana mentions that his grandfather Ratnanarayana (identified with Satyanarayana) was the king of Kamatapura which might indicate that the eastern region of Sadhaya was politically connected to the western region of Kamata. In these early inscriptions, the kings are said to be seated in Sadhyapuri, identified with the present-day Sadiya; which is why the kingdom is also called Sadiya. The Buranjis written in the Ahom language called the kingdom Tiora whereas those written in the Assamese language called it Chutia.

Brahmanical influence in the form of Vaishnavism reached the Chutia polity in the eastern extremity of present-day Assam during the late fourteenth century. Vaishnava brahmins created lineages for the rulers with references to Krishna legends but placed them lower in the Brahminical social hierarchy because of their autochthonous origins. Though

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asura lineage of the Chutia rulers have similarities with the Narakasura lineage created for the three Kamarupa dynasties, the precise historical connection is not clear.

Although a majority of the brahmin donees of the royal grants were Vaishnavas, the rulers patronized the non-brahmanised Dikkaravasini as well. Dikkaravasini (also Tamresvari or Kesai-khaiti), was either a powerful tribal deity, or a Buddhist deity adopted for tribal worship. This deity, noticed in the 10th century Kalika Purana well before the establishment of the Chutia kingdom, continued to be presided by a Deori-Chutia priesthood well into the Ahom rule and outside brahminical influence.

Rulers

Only a few recently compiled Buranjis provide the history of the Chutia kingdom; though some sections of these compilations are old, the sections that contain the list of Chutiya rulers cannot be traced to earlier than 19th century and scholars have shown great disdain for these accounts and legends.

Compiled a list of rulers based on epigraphic records based crucially on identifying the donor-ruler named Dharmanarayan, mentioned as the son of Satyanarayana in the Bormurtiya grant with the Dharmanarayan, the father of the donor-ruler Durlabhnarayana of the Chepakhowa grant. This effectively results in identifying Satyanarayana with Ratnanarayana.

Though it is accepted that the rule of the Chutia rulers ended in 1523-24, different sources give different accounts. The extant Ahom Buranji and the Deodhai Asam Buranji mention that in the final battles and the aftermath both the king and the heir-apparent were killed; whereas Ahom Buranji-Harakanta Barua mentions that the remnant of the royal family was deported to Pakariguri, Nagaon a fact that is disputed by scholars.

Domain

The extent of the power of the kings of the Chutia kingdom is not known in detail. Nevertheless, it is estimated by most modern scholarship that Chutias held the areas on the north bank of Brahmaputra from Parshuram Kund (present-day Arunachal Pradesh) in the east and included the present districts of Lakhimpur, Dhemaji, Tinsukia and some parts of Dibrugarh in Assam.

Between 1228 and 1253 when Sukaphaa, the founder of the Ahom kingdom, was searching for a place to settle in Upper Assam, he and his followers did not encounter any resistance from the Chutia state, implying that the Chutia state must have been of little significance till at least the mid 14th century, when the Ahom chronicles mention them for the first time.

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However, it is also known that the Ahoms themselves were a people with a precariously small territory and population, which may indicate this absence of serious interaction with the old settled people of the neighborhood until the 14th century.

At its largest extent, the Chutia influence might have extended up to Viswanath in the present Darrang district of Assam, though the main control was confined to the river valleys of Subansiri, Brahmaputra, Lohit and Dihing and hardly extended to the hills even at its zenith.

Downfall :Chutia-Ahom conflicts (1512-1524)

Suhungmung, the Ahom king, followed an expansionist policy and annexed Habung and Panbari in either 1510 or 1512, which according to Swarnalata Baruah was ruled by Bhuyans while according to Amalendu Guha, it was a Chutia dependency.

In 1513 a border conflict triggered the Chutia king Dhirnarayan to advance to Dikhowmukh and build a stockade of banana trees (Posola-garh). This fort was attacked by a force led by the Ahom king himself leading to a rout of the Chutia soldiers.

In 1520 the Chutias again attacked the Ahom fort Mungkhrang and occupied it, but the Ahoms recovered it soon and erected an offensive fort on the banks of Dibru river.

In 1523 the Chutia king attacked the fort at Dibru but was routed. The Ahom king and the nobles hotly pursued the retreating Chutia king who sued for peace. The peace overtures failed and the king finally fell to Ahom forces, bringing an end to the Chutia kingdom.

Though some late manuscripts mention the fallen king as Nitipal (or Chandranarayan) extant records from the Buranjis such as the Ahom Buranji and the Deodhai Ahom Buranji doesn’t mention any names.

The Ahom kingdom took complete possession of the royal insignia and other assets of the erstwhile kingdom. The rest of the royal family was dispersed, and the nobles were disbanded and the territory was placed under the newly created office of the Sadiakhowa Gohain. Besides the material assets and territories, the Ahoms also took possession of the people according to their professions. Many of Brahmans, Kayasthas, Kalitas and Daivajnas (the caste Hindus), as well as the artisans such as bell-metal workers, goldsmiths, blacksmiths and others were moved to the Ahom capital and this movement greatly increased the admixture of the Chutia and Ahom populations. A sizeable section of the population was also displaced from their former lands and dispersed in other parts of Upper Assam.

Historical divisions

After the fall of the Chutia kingdom, the Chutia people were divided into different groups due to circumstances based on either religious inclinations or associations with other communities. Over time, Chutias divided into five important groups:

Hindu Chutia

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The Hindu Chutias represented a large section of the population. These are the Chutias who were initiated by Vaishnavite saints like Shankardev, Madhavdev into Vaishnavism sect of Hinduism. They are popularly termed as Kesa-ponthi as they have been imposed certain restrictions like the use of animal meat and alcohols in their rites by the Vaishnavite community. The other group Poka-ponthi have retained their tribal customs in their original form.

Ahom Chutia

Among the Pokaponthis, the Ahom Chutias formed the major sub-division. They were termed as such as they intermarried with the Ahoms. Most of them have been absorbed into the Ahom fold over time. They held various position in the Ahom kingdom’s administration as seen with Momai Tamuli Borbarua, Langi Panisiya Borphukan, Rupchandra Borbarua, Kirtichandra Borbarua, Lachit Borphukan, Piyoli Borphukan, Badanchandra Borphukan, Thumlung Borgohain, Banrukia Gohain(during Susenpha’s reign), Even during Sukapha’s reign, many Chutia or Moran families like Som-chiring and Changsai were absorbed into the Ahom fold. Majority of Ahoms of the Chetia clan as well as the Lahon clan originated from the Chutia community.

Borahi Chutia

It is believed that the Borahi Chutias were a sub-group of Chutias who had certain religious rites different from other Chutias. The Buranjis mention classes (khel) like the Naoboicha and Hiloidari as being originally Chutias and included in the Borahi fold. Moreover, the Tai word used for the Borahis was Kha-lang with kha used by the Ahoms to refer to the people who were not associated with wet rice cultivation. Although most of them were absorbed into the Ahom group, some of the Chutias living in Dhemaji, Golaghat and Sibsagar districts still identify themselves as Borahi-Chutias.

Miri Chutia

Miri Chutias were the Chutias who lived in the bordering villages of the northern bank of Brahmaputra and fled to the Miri hills during the Ahom invasions. They intermarried with the Mishing and were subsequently absorbed by the later. They chiefly belonged to the Bihiya, Buruk (Medok) and Bebejia clans. In several villages, Mishing families still offer annual homage of ‘Jal-Pinda’ to some Chutia Mine or Chutiya grandmother which indicates that these people were originally Chutias. In the past, these descendants of the Chutia aristocracy also wore their hair long, contrary to the usual custom of the Mishing tribe; this they said was the privilege of the royal family. One of the two groups among the Mishing tribe, the Barogram, were referred to as Chutia-Miri which indicates that these Mishings were earlier subjects of the Chutia kings.

Rituals

The rituals of the Chutia community have a tribal-tantric folk religion base with an influence of Hinduism and Vaishnavism which have brought some reforms among a section of Chutias who are now known as Kesa-ponthi.

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They are named as such because they have been imposed certain restrictions like use of animal meat and alcohol in their rites. Others who have retained the age-old customs in its original form are termed as Poka-ponthis. Some of the rituals include Sabahs like Holita loguwa, Aai, Panitula Borsabah, Dangoria, Borsarakia, Khuti, Jal Devota, Jal kuwari, Apeswari, Kalika; Hewa/Pujas like Deo-kuber, Suvasani, Moh jokh Raati Hewa, Haun puja, and other rituals like Bhekulir Biya, Na-khuwa, Nangol dhua, Bhoral pitha dia, Nangol pitha dia.

Kachari Kingdom

The Kachari Kingdom (called Dimasa Kingdom in medieval times) was a powerful kingdom in medieval Assam. The rulers belonged to the Dimasa people, part of the greater Kachari ethnic group. The Kachari Kingdom along with others kingdoms (Kamata, Sutiya), are examples of state formations among the Kachari ethnic groups that developed in medieval Assam in the wake of the ancient Kamarupa Kingdom.

Remnants of the Kachari Kingdom existed till the advent of the British and gave its name to two present districts in Assam: Cachar and North Cachar Hills.

It is conjectured that the initial state formation began in the Sadiya region (coterminous with the later Sutiya Kingdom) because the Dimasas and the Sutiyas have a common tradition of the worship of Kechai Khaiti, the goddess in Sadiya.

At Dimapur

By the 13^th century the Kachari Kingdom exended along the southern banks of Brahmaputra river, from Dikhow river to Kallang river and included the valley of Dhansiri and present-day Dima Hasao district. According to the Buranjis, the Kachari settlements to the east of Dhansiri withdrew before the Ahom advance. The Sutiya Kingdom existed further east and the Kamata Kingdom to its west.

Hostilities with Ahoms

The Ahoms settled into the tract between the Sutiya and the Kachari Kingdoms that was inhabited by the Borahi and Matak peoples. The first clash with the Ahom Kingdom took place in 1490, in which the Ahoms were defeated. The Ahoms sued for peace, and an Ahom princess was offered to the Kachari king and the Kachari took control of the land beyond the Dhansiri. But the Ahoms were getting powerful and pushed the Kacharis back west.

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In 1526 the Kacharis defeated the Ahoms in a battle, but in the same year they were defeated in a second battle.

In 1531 the Ahoms advanced up to Dimapur, the capital of the Kachari Kingdom or Hirmba Kingdom, removed Khunkhara, the Kachari king, and installed Detsung in his place. But in 1536 the Ahoms attacked the Kachari capital once again and sacked the city.

The Kacharis abandoned Dimapur and retreated south to set up their new capital in Maibang. Maibang is Dima Kachari origin dialect. Mai means Paddy and bang means Plenty or aboundance. Then Maibang- a plenty of paddy.

At Maibang

At Maibang, the Kacharis kings came under Brahmin influence. The son of Dersongphaa took a Hindu name, Nirbhay Narayan, and established his Brahmin guru as the Dharmadhi that became an important institution of the state. The king’s genealogy was drawn from Bhima of the Pandavas, and his son Ghatotkacha born to Hidimba. The kingdom then came to be known as Heramba, and the rulers Herambeswar.

The king was assisted in his state duties by a council of ministers (Patra and Bhandari), led by a chief called Barbhandari. These and other state offices were manned by people of the Dimasa group, who were not necessarily Hinduized.

There were about 40 clans called Sengphong of the Dimasa people, each of which sent a representative to the royal assembly called Mel, a powerful institution that could elect a king. The representatives sat in the Mel mandap (Council hall) according to the status of the Sengphong and provided a counterfoil to royal powers.

Over time the Sengphongs developed a hierarchical structure with five royal Sengphongs though most of the kings belonged to the Hacengha clan. Some of the clans provided specialized services to the state ministers, ambassadors, store keepers, court writers, and other bureaucrats and ultimately developed into professional groups, e.g. Songyasa (king’s cooks), Nyablasa (fishermen).

By the 17th century the Kachari rule extended into the plains of Cachar. The plains people did not participate in the courts of the Kachari king directly. They were organized according to khels, and the king provided justice and collected revenue via an official called the Uzir. Though the plains people did not participate in the Kachari royal court, the Dharmadhi guru and other Brahmins in the court cast a considerable influence, especially with the beginning of the 18th century.

Neighboring states

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Chilarai attacked the Kachari Kingdom in 1562 during the reign of Durlabh Narayan and made it into a tributary of the Koch Kingdom. The size of the annual tribute – seventy thousand gold mohars and sixty elephants – testifies to the resourcefulness of the Kachari state. A small colony of Koch soldiers, who came to be known asDehans, enjoyed special privileges in the Kachari Kingdom. A conflict with the Jaintia Kingdom over the region of Dimarua led to a battle and the defeat of the Jaintia king (Dhan Manik).

After the death of Dhan Manik, Satrudaman the Kachari king, installed Jasa Manik on the throne who is said to have manipulated events to bring the Kacharis into conflict with the Ahoms once again in 1618. Satrudaman, the most powerful Kachari king, ruled over Dimarua in Nagaon district, North Cachar, Dhansiri valley, plains of Cachar and parts of eastern Sylhet. After his conquest of Sylhet, he struck coins in his name.

At Khaspur

The region of Khaspur was originally a part of the Tripura Kingdom, which was taken over by Chilarai in the 16th century. The region was ruled by a tributary ruler, Kamalnarayana, the brother of Chilarai. After the decline of Koch power, Khaspur became independent. In the middle of the 18th century, the last of the Koch rulers died without an heir and the control of the kingdom went to the ruler of the Kachari Kingdom. After the merger, the capital of the Kachari Kingdom moved to Khaspur, near present-day Silchar.

British occupation

After Gobinda Chandra the British annexed the Kachari Kingdom under the doctrine of lapse. At the time of British annexation, the kingdom consisted of parts of Nagaon and Karbi Anglong; North Cachar, Cachar and the Jiri frontier of Manipur.

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Colonial Assam

Colonial Assam (1826-1947) refers to the period of History of Assam between the signing of the Treaty of Yandabo and Independence of India when Assam was under the British colonial rule. The political institutions and social relations that were established or severed during this period continue to have a direct effect on contemporary events. The legislature and political alignments that evolved by the end of the British rule continued in the post Independence period. The immigration of farmers from East Bengal and tea plantation workers from Central India continue to affect contemporary politics, most notably that which led to the Assam Movement and its aftermath.

British Annexation

The present-day state of Assam and its predecessor Undivided Assam was colonized by the East India Company and the British Raj over a period of 150 years beginning with the Goalpara region in 1765 to drawing of the McMahon Line in 1913-1914 when the British consolidated its rule over the present-day Arunachal Pradesh.

The region that came to be known as undivided Goalpara district was the first region to come under British rule after the transfer of the Deewani from the Mughal Emperor on August 12, 1765. Due to tribal influences on the region the police thanas of Dhubri, Nageswari, Goalpara and Karaibari were placed under a special administrative unit called “North-Eastern Parts of Rangpur” in January 1822.

The First Anglo-Burmese War commenced in 1824, and by March 28 the British had occupied Guwahati, when the Raja of Darrang submitted themselves to the British, who made rudimentary administrative arrangements by October 1824.

The Burmese occupiers retreated from the Ahom capital of Rangpur in January 1825 and the nearly the whole of Brahmaputra Valley fell into British hands.

In the war against the Burmese the Ahoms did not help the British.

In 1828, the Kachari kingdom was annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse after the king Govinda Chandra was killed. In 1832, the Khasi king surrendered and the British increased their influence over the Jaintia ruler. In 1833, upper Assam became a British protectorate under the erstwhile ruler of the Ahom kingdom, Purandhar Singha, but in 1838 the region was formally annexed into the British empire.

With the annexation of the Maran/Matak territory in the east in 1839, the annexation of Assam was complete.

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Bengal Presidency (1826–1873)

Assam was included as a part of the Bengal Presidency. The annexation of upper Assam is attributed to the successful manufacture of tea in 1837, and the beginning of the Assam Company in 1839.

Under the Wasteland Rules of 1838, it became nearly impossible for natives to start plantations.

After the liberalisation of the rules in 1854, there was a land rush. The Chinese staff that was imported earlier for the cultivation of tea left Assam in 1843, when tea plantations came to be tended by local labour solely, mainly by those belonging to the Bodo-Kachari ethnic groups.

From 1859 central Indian labour was imported for the tea plantations. This labour, based on an unbreakable contract, led to a virtual slavery of this labour group.

The conditions in which they were transported to Assam were so horrific that about 10% never survived the journey.

The colonial government already had monopoly over the opium trade.

There were immediate protests and revolts against the British occupation. In 1828, two years after the Treaty of Yandabo, Gomdhar Konwar rose in revolt against the British, but he was easily suppressed. In 1830 Dhananjoy Burhagohain, Piyali Phukan and Jiuram Medhi rose in revolt, and they were sentenced to death.

In the Indian rebellion of 1857, the people of Assam offered resistance in the form of non-cooperation, and Maniram Dewan and Piyali Baruah were executed for their roles.

In 1861 peasants of Nagaon gathered at Phulaguri for a peoples’ assembly to protest against taxes on betel-nut and paan. Lt. Singer, a British officer got into a fracas with the peasants and was killed, after which the protests were violently suppressed.

Chief Commissioner’s Province (1874-1905)

In 1874, the Assam region was separated from the Bengal Presidency, Sylhet was added to it and its status was upgraded to a Chief Commissioner’s Province, also known as the ‘North-East Frontier’ non-regulation province.

The capital was at Shillong. Assamese, which had been replaced by Bengali as the official language in 1837, was reinstated alongside Bengali.

The new Commissionership included the four districts of Assam proper Nagaon, Darrang, Sibsagar and Lakhimpur), Khasi-Jaintia Hills, Garo Hills, Naga Hills, Goalpara, (Kamrup and Sylhet-Cachar of Bengal comprising about 54,100 sq miles.

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The people of Sylhet, Goalpara, Kamrup and the Hills protested the inclusion in Assam.

In 1889, oil was discovered at Digboi giving rise to an oil industry. In this period Nagaon witnessed starvation deaths, and there was a decrease in the indigenous population, which was more than adequately compensated by the immigrant labour.

Colonialism was well entrenched, and the tea, oil and coal-mining industries were putting increasing pressure on the agricultural sector which was lagging behind.

The peasants, burdened under the opium monopoly and the usury by money lenders, rose again in revolt. Numerous peasants decided against paying the taxes.

The protests culminated in a bayonet charge against the protesters at Patharughat in 1894. At least 15 were left dead and in the violent repression that followed villagers were tortured and their properties were destroyed or looted. In 1903, Assam Association was formed with Manik Chandra Baruah as the first secretary.

Eastern Bengal and Assam under Lt. Governor (1906–1912)

After the Bengal partition of 1905, the East Bengal was added to the Chief Commissioner’s Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam.

The new region, now ruled by a Lt. Governor, had its capital at Dhaka. This province had a 15-member legislative council in which Assam had two seats.

The members for these seats were recommended (not elected) by rotating groups of public bodies.

The Partition of Bengal was strongly protested in Bengal, and the people of Assam were not happy either.

Opposition to partition was co-ordinated by Indian National Congress, whose President was then Sir Henry John Stedman Cotton who had been Chief Commissioner of Assam until he retired in 1902.

The partition was finally annulled by an imperial decree in 1911, announced by the King-Emperor at the Delhi Durbar.

The Swadeshi movement (1905-1908) from this period, went largely unfelt in Assam, though it stirred some, most notably Ambikagiri Raychoudhury.

Beginning 1905 peasants from East Bengal began settling down in the riverine tracts (char) of the Brahmaputra valley encouraged by the colonial government to increase agricultural production. Between 1905 and 1921, the immigrant population from East Bengal increased four folds.

The immigration continued in post colonial times, giving rise to the Assam Agitation of 1979.

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Assam Legislative Council (1912–1920)

The administrative unit was reverted to a Chief Commissioner’s Province (Assam plus Sylhet), with a Legislative Council added and Assam Province was created.

The Council had 25 members, of which the Chief Commissioner and 13 nominated members formed the bulk.

The other 12 members were elected by local public bodies like municipalities, local boards, landholders, tea planters and Muslims.

As Assam became involved in the Non-cooperation movement, the Assam Association slowly transformed itself into the Assam Pradesh Congress Committee (with 5 seats in AICC) in 1920-21.

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Dyarchy(1921–1937)

Under the Government of India Act 1919 the Assam Legislative Council membership was increased to 53, of which 33 were elected by special constituencies.

The powers of the Council were increased too; but in effect, the official group, consisting of the Europeans, the nominated members etc. had the most influence.

Syed Muhammed Saadulah served as Minister of Education and Agriculture from 1924 to 1929.

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He was later made a Member of the Executive Council of the Governor of Assam holding the portfolios for Law and Order and Public Works from 1929 to 1930 and for Finance and Law and Order from 1930 to 1934.

Assam Legislative Assembly (1937-1947)

Under the Government of India Act 1935, the Council was expanded into an Assembly of 108 members, with even more powers.

The period saw thesudden rise of Gopinath Bordoloi and Muhammed Saadulah and their tussle for power and influence.

With India getting Independence in 1947, independent Assam’s state Government was formed with Gopinath Bordoloi as it’s first Chief Minister.

Assam after Independence

When Gopinath Bordoloi passed away in 1950, Bishnu Ram Medhi took over as the next Chief Minister of Assam. During his tenure from 1950 to 1957, the First Five-Year Plan was started, Panchayat system of governance was introduced and the agricultural sector got more importance.

In 1959-60 the famous language revolt took place in Assam, and as a result Assamese became the official language of the State and Bengali also enjoyed the same status in the Cachar District of Barak Valley.

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In 1972 Sarat Chandra Sinha came to power after Congress secured absolute majority. In 1974 the capital was finally shifted to Dispur in Guwahati.

United Liberation Front of Asom

The United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) is an armed separatist organisation operating in the Northeast Indian state of Assam. It seeks to establish an independent sovereign nation state of Assam for the indigenous Assamese people through an armed struggle in the Assam conflict.

The Government of India banned the organisation in 1990 citing it as a terrorist organisation, while the United States Department of State lists it under other groups of concern.

On 3 September 2011, a tripartite agreement for “Suspension of Operations” against ULFA was signed between the Indian government, the Assam government and the ULFA.

Bodoland Statehood Movement

Bodoland is an autonomous region in Assam, Northeast India. It is made up of four districts on the north bank of the Brahmaputra river below the foothills of Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh. It is administered by an elected body known as the Bodoland Territorial Council which came into existence under the terms of a peace agreement signed in February 2003 and its autonomy was further extended by an agreement signed in January 2020. The region covers an area of over nine thousand square kilometres and is predominantly inhabited by the Bodo people and other indigenous communities of Assam.

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Bodos are the single largest community among the notified Scheduled Tribes in Assam. They constitute about 5-6% of Assam’s population.

Kokrajhar, Baksa, Udalguri and Chirang districts in Assam constitute the Bodo Territorial Area District (BTAD) and are home to several ethnic groups.

Demand of Separate State:

The first organised demand for a Bodo state came in 1967-68 under the banner of the political party called Plains Tribals Council of Assam.

Assam Accord:

In 1985, when the Assam Movement culminated in the Assam Accord, many Bodos saw it as essentially focusing on the interests of the Assamese-speaking community.

As a result of this, several Bodo groups led by the All Bodo Students Union (ABSU) and National Democratic Front of Bodoland have been demanding separate land for the ethnic community, a movement that has claimed nearly 4,000 lives.

Displacement of People:

Between 1993 and 2014, more than 970 Bengali-speaking Muslims, Adivasis and Bodos died in clashes triggered by indiscriminate shooting by extremist groups, primarily the now-disbanded National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB).

Some of the 8.4 lakh people displaced by the violence have remained in shabby relief camps while others relocated to areas beyond present-day BTR. Over 2.5 lakh people were displaced in the Bodo-Santhal conflict.

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Bodo Accord

First Bodo Accord: After years of violent clashes, the first Bodo Accord was signed with the ABSU in 1993, leading to the creation of a Bodoland Autonomous Council with limited political powers.

Second Bodo Accord: Under this, it was agreed to create a self-governing body for the Bodo Areas in the State of Assam. In pursuance of this, the Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) was created in 2003 with some more financial and other powers.

Third Bodo Accord: The agreement was signed in 2020, it renamed the BTAD as Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR). It promises more legislative, executive and administrative autonomy under the Sixth Schedule to Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) and expansion of the BTC territory in lieu of statehood. It provides for alteration of the area of BTAD and provisions for Bodos outside BTAD. BTR includes the villages which are dominated by Bodos but are outside BTAD presently.

Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC)

It is an autonomous region in the state of Assam in India.

It is made up of four districts (Kokrajhar, Chirang, Baksa and Udalguri) on the north bank of the Brahmaputra river, by the foothills of Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh.

The area under the jurisdiction of BTC, formed under the 2003 Accord, was called the Bodo Territorial Autonomous District (BTAD).

BTC is an area governed under the 6th schedule. However, BTC is an exception to the constitutional provision under the 6th schedule. As it can constitute up to 46 members out of which 40 are elected. Of these 40 seats, 35 are reserved for the Scheduled Tribes and non-tribal communities, five are unreserved and the rest six are nominated by the governor from underrepresented communities of the BTAD.

Autonomous Districts and Regional Councils

Along with ADCs, the Sixth Schedule also provides for separate Regional Councils for each area constituted as an autonomous region. In all, there are 10 areas in the Northeast that are registered as autonomous districts – three in Assam, Meghalaya and Mizoram and one in Tripura. These regions are named as district council of (name of district) and regional council of (name of region).

Each autonomous district and regional council consists of not more than 30 members, of which four are nominated by the governor and the rest via elections. All of them remain in power for a term of five years.

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Present Revival of the Bodoland Statehood Movement

According to the new organisation, the new (2020) accord has been a betrayal of the Bodo people. Besides being an inferior accord, it prescribes a reduction of the area currently under the BTC.

The accord has a provision for excluding from the BTR villages with more than 50% non-Bodos and including villages with more than 50% Bodo people left out of the BTC map after the 2003 accord.

Salient features of architecture and monuments of Assam

Architectural remains belonging to the early medieval days are found in many places of Assam, like Tezpur, Guwahati, Hajo, Goalpara, Nagaon, Golaghat and such others. There are literary and epigraphic records which refer to architectural activities in Pre-Ahom Assam.

The heritage of Assam is all about historic ruins, ancient temples, magnificent forts, and vibrant wildlife. The heritage architecture of Assam can be easily perceived when seen through the lens of how various dynasties ruled over the land of Assam.

Pre-Ahom Architecture of Assam

The earliest evidence of architecture in Assam dates back to the Gupta Period, during the rule of the Varman dynasty in Kamarupa. Not a single temple of this period is in standing condition and only ruins are seen, over which temples of the Ahom period were constructed. Da-Parbatia, an ancient village near Tezpur has ruins of two ancient temples, one belonging to the 5th or 6th century, on which another temple was constructed during the Ahom rule.

From almost the beginning of the Varman dynasty in the 5th century to the end of the Salastambha dynasty in the 10th century, the architectural remains can be aced in and around Tezpur. Another historical marvel from the Salasthamba period is the Rock-cut Caves in Bongaigaon. The five rock-cut caves have a brick and mud masonry-made platform, which is in all probability was built during a later period. The art and architecture of the caves is an exemplary example of the kind that was practiced during the time. Although not much is known about these caves, one of the best-preserved caves has a length of 1.90 meters and comes with a rounded verandah with a flight of steps, unlike the other caves.

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Ahom period Monuments

The Ahoms, based on which Assam got its present name, established their cultural and economic stability in the region for over six centuries, which can be seen in their monuments in the town of Sivasagar.

The town has over 170 tanks, depicting a typical style of architecture. The most famous heritage sites of Assam, Kareng Ghar, and Talatal Ghar are historical treasures of this period.

In the former capital Rangpur, Swargeo Rudra Singha built a palace from organic bricks, which was later further constructed into a seven-story palace by his successor Rajeshwara; the three

ground storeys are known as ‘Talatal Ghar’ while the rest four-storey structure is called ‘Kareng Ghar’.

Another construction by King Swargdeo is a remarkable two-storey structure of the Ahom period, called Rang Ghar. It is a royal sports pavilion also used for cultural programs and to watch the traditional ‘bull-fights’. The main entrance has two stone-carved crocodiles while the interiors are decorated with magnificent sculptures.

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In this second phase of temple architecture, inclination towards Hinduism was observed with the erection of Hindu temples, especially devoted to Goddess Durga. But subsequently, temple architecture adopted the “Nilacala type” in the construction of Jai Dol.

Though Islamic influence is seen, the indigenous do-Cala typed gained prominence. The style reached its zenith during the period of Siva Singha, after the construction of the tallest historical monument in Assam, the Siva Temple at Sivasagar. Like the pre-Ãhom period, the temples of this period also have an Indo-Aryan influence, consisting of Garbhagriha, Vimana, Sikhara, and Mandap.

Koch Dynasty

During the reign of King Naranarayana and his brother General Chilãrãi, the dynasty reached its epitome of glory. The king built the famous Kamakhya temple on Nilachal hill, in 1565 AD over ruins that date back to even before the pre-Ãhom period.

This sacred temple of Kamakhya Devi is a prominent religious site, one of the four primary Shakti Pithas, and flocked by pilgrims all year long. The ‘Nilachala style’ originated from this temple, which put more Islamic style ignoring the Indo-Aryan style of architecture.

The Kacharis had its first capital in Dimapur and then later shifted to Maibong and Khaspur. The monuments, monolithic hut, and rock-cut temples of these days resemble a typical Bengal do-Cala structure.

The Kachari architecture grew heavily under Bengal’s influence and ended with the decline of the Kachari rule.

The Kachari Fort built during this time depicts the noteworthy architecture and a mix of Non-Aryan and Hinduism culture.

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Secular Architecture

The secular building architecture is rare in Assam and the most noteworthy examples are three monuments that were built during the Ãhom period- the Rang Ghar, the Talatal Ghar, and the Kareng Ghar.

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The Rang Ghar is built in Islamic style for the members of the then royal family. However, the Talatal Ghar is built in the Mughal style and the Kareng Ghar is built in the South-Asiatic style.

Muslim Architecture

In spite of their best efforts, the Mughals were unable to conquer Assam due to the strong resistance by the Ahom dynasty, yet in the western parts of Assam, Mughal advances are marked by three Muslim monuments: Rangamati mosque near Gauripur, Pach Piran Dargah, and Mirijumlar Masjid.

Historic Monuments of Assam

Department of Indigenous Faith and Culture

On July 10, 2021 the Assam Cabinet had approved a proposal to create the ‘Department of Indigenous Faith and Culture’ to protect the faith and cultural practices of people belonging to tribal and other indigenous communities.

In Assam, three existing directorates – archaeology, museum, and historical and antiquarian studies – will be brought under the proposed Department of Indigenous Faith and Culture.

The Assam government wants to give life to the expectation, culture and customs of the indigenous tribes that cannot compete in terms of strength and financial capacity with others.

Agnigarh

“Preserving the sweet memory of young lovers”, Agnigarh or the rampart, surrounded by fire, is perhaps the most beautiful tourist spots in Tezpur. According to legend, Princess Usha, the only daughter of King Bana, was kept inside the palace which was surrounded by rampart of fire. The present Agnigarh, now only a hillock facing the mighty Brahmaputra, provides the tourist a soul touching panoramic view of both the river and Tezpur town.

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Madan Kamdev

Madan Kamdev, an archaeological site dates back to the 10th and 12th century AD, is situated at Baihata Chariali of Kamrup in Assam. This place was discovered only in the year 1977, when the Indian Archaeological Department undertook the work of excavation in this area.

It is belived that Kama or Madan, the God of Love was reborn in this place after being turn into ashes by angry Lord Shiva. One school belive that Madan was reborn and united to his wife Rati in this tiny hillock. Another school argue that the name Madan Kamdev is romantic association to palce, because of the numarous erotic sculptures.

Perhaps there is no place in India except Khajuraho and Kanarak, where basic weaknesses of mortals caught in fear, doubt, love, jelously and consumate passion have been so eloquently expressed. It is realy a mystery, how Madan Kamdev, a place exquisite antiquities, so near to Guwahati escaped the notice of all for such a long time. It is now established that many priceless imageses of Madan Kamdev were either stolen by curio hunters or by religion-duped villagers without perhaps realising the value of the curving they removed.

The ruins of the temple included statues of 6 headed Bhairav, 6 headed Vishnu, 4 headed Shiva, Sun, etc. The temple area has the Mandakini River flowing just beneath, and there is also a vast swampy land. According to Hindu mythology, Lord Shiva had once burned the God of love or Madan down to the ashes and this was the place where the God of love and pleasure resurrected.

Kamakhya Temple

Situated on a hilltop on the Nilachal hills in Guwahati, Kamakhya Temple is one of the most revered out of all 51 Shakti Peethas in India. This pilgrimage site built in the reign of the Mlechchha dynasty holds religious significance and architectural excellence. Kamakhya Temple is visited by Hindu devotees and inquisitive tourists from across the globe.

Every year in June, the temple remains closed for 3 days, and according to popular belief, it is said that the goddess undergoes the menstruation cycle in this period. Locals also believe that owing to this phenomenon, the water of the river Brahmaputra turns red!

The Kamakhya temple was built in the 8th century and was reconstructed multiple times until the 17th century by different kings belonging to the Ahom and Koch dynasties. Devotees at the temple do not worship an idol instead worship the Yoni (vulva) of Goddess Sati.

As per the mythological belief, Goddess Sati once went to her father’s house to participate in an auspicious ceremony, but her father Daksha insulted and spoke ill of Lord

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Shiva. Unable to bear this insult the Goddess immolated herself. After this, Lord Shiva got so furious that he took the mortal remains of the goddess and started performing Tandav, during this time wherever the parts of the Goddess’s body fell came to be known as Shakti Peethas. Kamakhya Temple is one such Shaktipeeth where the genitals of the goddess fell.

Kamakhya temple is divided into 4 sections beginning from the main Garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) and 3 Mandapas that are named Calanta, Pancharatna, and Natamandira. Kamakhya temple is home to 10 Mahavidyas, which are the forms of Goddess Parvati, the consort of Lord Shiva. Out of these 10 Mahavidyas, 3 reside in the main temple, whereas the remaining 7 reside in individual temples on the main premises. The names of these 10 Mahavidyas are Kamala, Matangi, Kali, Bahiravi, Bhuvaneshwari, Tara, Shodashi, Dhumavati, Bagalamukhi, and Chhinnamasta.

Navagraha Temple of Guwahati

The Navagraha Temple is found on the top of Chitrasal Hill (or Navagraha Hill), in Guwahati city, Assam, India. Enshrined in this temple are nine Shivalingams, representing the nine Celestial bodies, each covered with a colored garment symbolic of each of the celestial bodies, with a Shivaligam in the center symbolizing the sun. The Navagraha temple was built by Ahom King Rajeswar Singha in the late 18th century. It has been renovated in recent times during the late 1923-45.

The present temple of Navagrahas in Guwahati was built during the time of King Rajesvar Singh in 1752 AD. The upper part (Sikhara) of the temple was destroyed by the great earthquake which occurred in old times and was rebuilt with corrugated iron-sheet. The ‘Garbhagriha’, built of brick, however, exists.

The Navagrahas or the nine planets thus are being represented in the Sashtras:

Firstly the Surya’s great chariot which has one wheel and is drawn by seven horses, while carrying a lotus in each of his hands, he wears an armour and has a shield over his breast with the beautiful straight hair, and is surrounded by a halo of light.

Secondly the great Chandra who is been represented in white colour, clothed in white garment who is surrounded by a halo and adorned with ornaments and garland of all sorts of flowers.

Thirdly one, Mangala who is represented in fire-like red colour, clothed in red garments, seated upon Simhasana, with three arms bearing ‘Gada’, ‘Sula’, ‘Sakti’ weapons and as one in an ‘Abhaya’ or ‘Varada’ pose.

Then, Buddha is being represented in yellow colour, clothed in yellow garment, with’ three arms bearing ‘Khadga’, ‘Khetaka’, and ‘Gada’ and in Varada pose.

In the fifth place is Brihaspati who is represented in yellow colour, clothed in golden yellow garments with three arms bearing ‘Kamandalu’, ‘Aksamala’, and ‘Danda’ and in

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Varada pose. Sometimes this planet is represented with two arms having a ‘Pustaka’ and an ‘Aksamala’.

Then sixth planet, Shukra represented by white colour, clothed in white garments, having four arms and one who bears the same weapons as Brihaspati. Shukra is sometimes represented with two hands bearing ‘Nidhi’ (treasure) and ‘Pustaka’.

The seventh planet, Shani is represented in black colour and being clothed in black garments, small in stature and somewhat lame in one leg. He has two arms bearing a Danda and an ‘Aksamala’ and sometimes in Varada pose.

The eighth is Rahu being represented on a ‘Simhasana’ or a silver chariot drawn by eight horses. According to some, it is possessed with four arms, three of which bear ‘Khadga’, ‘Khetaka’, and ‘Sula’ and in Varada pose and sometimes he possesses two arms carrying a book.

The last, ninth planet is the Ketu being represented in dark colour having two arms in Abhaya pose holding a ‘Gada’, and sometimes on a chariot drawn by ten horses.”

Ugratara Temple

Dedicated to Sati Devi, the 1st partner of Lord Shiva, Ugratara Temple is an important Shakti Temple. The Ugratara temple is a Devi temple located in Latasil area of capital city Guwahati on the western side of Jur Pukhuri tank in Assam. The temple is located towards the eastern part of Guwahati city. It is an important Shakti shrine related to Sati, the first consort of Lord Shiva.

The present temple of Ugratara in Guwahati was built by Ahom King Siva Singh in 1725 AD. The Ahom king excavated a tank years before. This tank, known as Jur Pukhuri is situated on the eastern side of the Ugratara temple. The tank still exists in that same place, though a part of it was destroyed by an earthquake which was later rebuilt. In the Garbha griha (sanctum sanctorum) of the Goddess, no idol or image of her is present but small pit filled with water is considered as the Goddess. There is a Shivalaya located beside the temple and also a pond behind both the temples.

Goddess Ugratara is worshipped like Goddess Kamakhya with offerings and sacrifices. Goddess Ugratara likes liquor, flesh, Modaka, coconuts and sugar cane which are offered. There are also traditionally animal practices done in the temple to please the Goddess. Animals like goats, pigeons, ducks and even buffaloes are sacrificed in the temple. During the annual Durga Puja held in the temple, a certain number of buffaloes are sacrificed to please the Goddess.

Umananda Temple

Umananda Devaloi is a Shiva temple located at the Peacock Island in the middle of river Brahmaputra just opposite the office of the Deputy Commissioner of Kamrup or the

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Kachari Ghat in Guwahati. It was built by the Ahom King Gadadhar Singha (1681–1696), who was a devout Shaivaite.

It is known as smallest inhabited riverine island in the world. Country boats that are available on the bank of Brahmaputra take the visitors to the island. The mountain on which the temple has been built is known as Bhasmacala.

Siva is said to have resided here in the form of Bhayananda. According to the Kalika Purana, in the beginning of the creation Siva sprinkled ashes (bhasma) at this place and imparted knowledge to Parvati (his consort). It is said that, when Siva was in meditation on this hillock, Kamadeva interrupted his yoga and was therefore burnt to ashes by the fire of Siva’s anger and hence the hillock got the name Bhasmacala.

This mountain is also called Bhasmakuta. The Kalika Purana states that Urvasikunda is situated here and here resides the goddess Urvasi who brings Amrit (nectar) for the enjoyment of Kamakhya and hence the island got the name Urvasi Island.

The presiding deity of the temple is Umananda (Tatrasti bhagavan sambhu- ruma- nandakarah Prabhu). It is believed that, worship here on the Amavasya day when it falls on Monday brings the highest bliss. The Siva Chaturdasi is the most colourful festival that is held here annually. Many devotees come to the temple on this occasion for the worship of the deity.

The temple of Umananda was built in 1694 A.D. by the Bar Phukan Garhganya Handique by the order of King Gadadhar Singha (1681-1696), one of the ablest and strongest rulers of the Ahom dynasty. The original temple was however immensely damaged by a devastating earthquake of 1897. Later, it was reconstructed by a rich local merchant who chose to inscribe the interior part of a Siva temple with Vaisnavite slogans.

During the short period of the Mughal occupation of Kamrupa. Land men and money were received by the priests of the temples of Umananda from the Mughal Emperors Jahangir and Aurangzeb.

The temple has inherited some rock-cut figures, which speak passionately of the masterly skill of the Assamese craftsmen. The sculptures here show that the worshippers there followed all the principal Hindu gods. Representations of Surya, Ganesha, Shiva and Devi (with a scorpion as emblem) in addition to those of Visnu and his ten incarnations (avatar) are found here.

The ruins of Bamuni Hills

In the north eastern state of Assam, there are a number of relics of the olden times which remind one of the glorious past of the area. In the Bamuni hills of the district of Sonitpur, one may find such spectacular ruins, which attract a number of people to the region. On the right bank of the mighty Brahmaputra, the low hill names Bamuni is situated, which displays a number of awe inspiring stone carvings and statues of the bygone era.

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The Archaeological Study of India, under whose control this area currently is, has fixed the date of these ruins at 10th to 12th century A.D. The style of the art excavated in this area indicates towards the Gupta period.

It is a protected site by the ASI Tezpur sub circle. The carvings on the walls and pillars of the temple speak a lot about the skills and talent of the contemporary artisans and sculptors. The floral and geometric designs are worth mentioning.

Several sculptures of animals like crocodile and tortoise are also found. The different avatars of Vishnu are nicely engraved and the piece of slab is still intact. Several pieces of the temple walls and pillars are taken to the adjacent Cole park or Chitralekha Udyan within the Tezpur town and are well preserved.

Bhairavi Temple of Tezpur

Bhairabi temple stands on the outskirts of Tezpur, in Sonitpur district of Assam. The temple is devoted to the goddess, Bhairabi. Among the locals, goddess is famously known by the name of Maithan and Bhairabi Devalaya. Bhairabi Temple is a revered siddha pitha where people offer the prayers to the goddess and seek her blessings. Here, goddess Bhairabi is worshipped as Mahavidyas of Ma Durga Devi. Bhairabi temple is situated close to Bharali river. On each and every occasion, a ritual of slaughtering and offerings of goats, ducks, pigeons, etc. still exist here.

Bhairabi temple is a very important and sacred Shakti Peeth of Assam. The temple overlooks towards the Kolia Bhomora Setu across the Brahmaputra River. The temple site is locally known Bhairabi Devalaya. The architectural work of the temple represents Assamese culture.

The temple is dedicated to Goddess Durga and the backdrop of the temple provides a view of the Kalia Bhomora Setu, which has been built across the Brahmaputra River. The local people of the place also refer to this temple as Bhairabi Devalaya and Maithan. According to legends, Usha, who was the daughter of Asura King Banasura, came regularly to this temple for worshipping Goddess Durga. The sacrificing offerings at this temple include bulls and goats. The famous Bamuni Hills also lies at a few km from this temple.

Bhairabi temple is locally known as ‘Maithan’ or ‘Bhairabi Devalaya’. The temple belongs to the Borthakur’s of Tezpur. Bhairabi Temple is a representation of the Assamese architecture. The interior of this temple is decorated with sculpted images. The carvings in the temple are absolutely amazing. The 9th-century art work is evident on the stone carvings.

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Da-Parbatia

The ruins of the door frame of Da-Parbatia Temple a few kms. from Tezpur town, is perhaps the finest and oldest specimen of sculptural or iconoclastic art in Assam. It’s carving has the characteristics of the style of early Gupta School of sculpture.

The door-jambs having two goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna, standing below with garlands in their hands in artistic pose and elegance are decorated with beautiful ornamental foliage.

Suryapahar

Suryapahar is located 136 km west of Guwahati is a unique archaeological site on a hillock sporting Hindu, Buddhist and Jain relics together. The site has hundreds of ancient engraved Shiva Lingas of various sizes, a series of Buddhist stupas and sculptures associated with Jain religious beliefs. Remains of planned houses and artistic bricks at Suryapahar have confirmed the long-held belief that a civilization thrived here centuries ago.

Deoparbat

Deoparbat is close to Kaziranga National Park, Deoparbat is a hillock housing stone carvings and ruins of temples from the 8th and 9th centuries. The main Shiva temple here was destroyed in a major earthquake in 1897.

The archaeological site adjoins the Deopahar Reserve Forest and is close to Garampani Wildlife Sanctuary on National Highway 39. Home to hoolock gibbons and golden langurs, the sanctuary derives its name from a hot spring.

Ambari excavations

Ambari excavations is located in the heart of Guwahati, close to the Dighalipukhuri tank, Ambari straddles two distinct cultural periods ranging from 7-12th AD and 13-17th AD. A ceramic industry dominated by kaolin ware, red ware and buff ware has been unearthed here. Chinese celadon ware and green glazed ware have also been found in the excavation.

Moidams

The moidams are pyramid like burial mounds of members of the Ahom royalty. The best known are some 40 tombs at Charaideo, 30 km from Sivasagar town, which was the first capital of the Ahoms after Sukapha (1228-1268) established his kingdom there. At Hoolungapara, 16 km from Jorhat, is Lachit Moidam that preserves the remains of Lachit Barphukan (1622-72), the great Ahom general who defeated the Mughal forces in the Battle of Saraighat in 1671. Close to Jorhat are Raja Moidam, the tomb of king Purandar Singha, and Purnananda Buragohain Moidam, the tomb of a general near Tocklai.

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PAINTINGS and HANDICRAFTS

Assamese paintings are known all over the world for their unique style and versatile nature. The traditional paintings of Assam are based primarily on the folklores, myths and religious customs that were once an integral part of the Assamese people.

Ahom palaces and satras and naam-ghar etc still abound in brightly-coloured paintings depicting various stories and events from events from history and mythology. Most famous Hastividyarnava (A treatise on Elephants), chitra bhagavata and gita Gobinda painting are excellent. These are also prominent mythology on the basis of which several traditional forms of paintings were created by the veteran painters of Assam. So, the traditional paintings have become a central point of attraction in the artistic contours of Assam.

The earliest evidence of paintings is found in the gifts presented by the Kamarupa King Bhaskaravarman to his ally Harshavardhana in the form of colours and such other tools for painting, as referred to in the Harsacarita.

The presents included ‘carved boxes of panels for painting with brushes and gourds’ and gold painted cages. Besides these, there were a few tinted manuscripts and volumes of pink hued fine writing leaves made from the aloe bark.

Some of the manuscripts on which Assamese paintings are based have been preserved in the Assam State Museum, Kamarupa Anusandhan San-dty and the Historical and Antiquarian Department. Some others are in the hands of private collectors.

Besides these, the Assam Fine Arts and Crafts Society (Guwahati) and Jorhat Fine Art Society have been playing a significant role in preserving the rich cultural heritage of the state. Records of the traditional paintings have also been done in the famous Assam silk.

It is said that during the visit of Hiuen Tsang and Harshavardhana to the state, the king of Kamrupa, Kumar Bhaskara, presented them with elusive Assamese silk paintings.

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Schools Of Painting

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Broadly, the paintings of Assam can be categorized under two headings or schools – Assam School and Tai-Ahom School. Let us explore them in detail.

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Assam School

Assam School can be further subdivided into Sattriya and Royal styles. Sattriya style was mainly propagated by Sri Sankaradeva. Beautiful illustrations of this style can still be found in certain manuscripts of the region, like the Citra Bhagavat (1539 AD). In addition to the local Assamese tradition and traits, Mughal, Rajput and Pahari influence can be seen in these paintings.

There is a fine portrayal of local animal life, like lion and bison, apart from pictures of trees with flowers and birds. Such charming illustrations definitely attract the attention of the onlookers and students. The Royal style, on the other hand, developed two more styles namely, Garhagaon and Darrang styles.

Tai- Ahom School

Tai- Ahom School is mainly represented by the Phung Chin manuscript and Suktanta Kyempong. The Phung Chin manuscript shows illustrations of 16 heavens and 16 hells, while the latter deals with Lokadharma.

Assam Arts & Crafts

History tells us that the artists and artisans of Assam were known far and wide, for their exquisite craftsmanship. In addition to the world-famous famous silk products, bamboo

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and cane products have also occupied an important place in handicraft industry of the state. Then, there are the traditional masks, metal handicrafts, paintings, and so on. There is a sense of simplicity and style in the skills of the Assamese craftsman and this is what makes their products so unique and charming.

Assam is a confluence of a number of tribes and cultures and this is reflected in the traditional handicrafts of the place as well. However, in the recent times, due to the effects of globalization, changes have been seen in the patterns and designs of the Assamese arts and crafts also. There have been variations in the weaving skills, but despite this, the technology of production has not changed much. The conventional modes of manufacturing are still very much in use. In order to improve the standards of the handicraft industry of Assam, the government has established the Assam Art and Craft society (1971) in Guwahati. Through it, regular research and conferences are conducted, to further the efforts of the craftsmen.

Cane & Bamboo Crafts

Bamboo and cane contribute a lot to the economy and lifestyle of the north-eastern state of Assam. This is mainly because of the fact that the hills and forests of the region have vast expanses of bamboos and canes and the natives, being excellent craftsmen that they are, have learnt to use them for a wide range of purpose in their everyday life.

Handloom Products

Handloom comprises of one of the oldest industries in the northeastern state of Assam. It is known far and wide for its rich textures and designs. So much importance is attached with the industry that it is customary for every young Assamese girl to acquire the skill to weave, in order to qualify for marriage.

Assam Jewelry

Assam has a rich collection of traditional jewelry, which is unique and exclusive to the state. These jewelries hold a special place in the heart of the Assamese women and are worn during the cultural and religious events. Jorhat, the second biggest city of Assam, is the main jewelry making centre of the state.

Assamese Masks

Masks, also known as mukhas, are said to be the base of the Assamese culture and tradition. They are worn mostly during theatres and bhaonas, which revolve around the Assamese tribal myths and folktales. Since ages, these masks have been the centre of each and every cultural event in the state.

Metal Crafts

Metal craft comprises of one of the oldest cottage industries of Assam. These products are famous all over India and can be found in almost every Assamese household. Famed for their unique artistic skills, the local artists and craftsmen of the state are mainly involved in designing brass and bell metal utensils.

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Assamese Paintings

The traditional paintings of Assam serve as a source of inspiration to thousands of art lovers across the globe. Known for their unmatched quality and outstanding strokes of mastery, they have become an integral part of the rich Assamese culture and heritage. Tracing their origin to seventh century AD, Assamese paintings

Toys

Toys speak a lot about the culture and tradition of a place. They depict the lifestyle and the way of living of the people residing there. So much can be known about the heritage and customs of a given place through toys that mentioning them becomes inevitable when one speaks about the art and craft of a particular region.

Woodcraft

A reference to the traditional art and craft of Assam, without mentioning the exquisite woodwork found there, would be as good as incomplete. So vast is the woodcraft industry in Assam that a separate group of people called khonikors is there to carry out this delicate task. The success of this industry depends mainly on the raw material, timber, which is found in abundance in the state.

Dances of Assam

It is often said that folk dance is the best manifestation of the culture and tradition of a particular place. The best example to this statement can be seen in the various ethnic dance forms that are prevalent in the different corners of Assam. The state is home to a number of indigenous tribes and races, each of which has its own fairs and festivals. This has led to the propagation of innumerous dance forms throughout the region. The different dance forms in the state can be broadly categorized under two headings, classical dances and folk dances.

Classical Dance

Bhaona – This dance form is basically performed in the village Namghars and Satras, in order to promote the Vaishnavite culture in Assam. It is actually a theatrical

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depiction of the one-act play Ankiya Nat, initiated by Sankardeva. An integral part of the dance is the Sutradhara, who recites the slokas, sings, dances and explains the various stages of Bhaona in detail. Another form of dance included in Bhaona is the Natuwa or Cali dance. One of the subdivisions of this dance form is the Hajowaliya, which is basically a woman’s dance and is the combination of both Tandava and Lasya.

Oja Pali – Oja- Pali is a form of classical dance, representing the rich tradition and cultural heritage of Assam. Oja and Pali are actually a group of chorus singers and dancers, with Oja as the leader and Palis as his assistants.

Satriya Nritya – Satriya dance is a renowned classical dance of the state of Assam and was introduced by Srimanta Shankardev to propagate the religion of Vaishnavism.

Bihu Dance

Bihu dance is the most popular folk dance of Assam and as its very name suggests, is related to the Bihu festival, which is celebrated with pomp and glory within the state. The festival is mainly a celebration of the different phases of cultivation and is observed by all the Assamese, irrespective of their caste and creed.

Oja-Pali Dance

Oja-Pali is a classical dance form of Assam, representing the rich tradition and cultural heritage of the state. Oja and Pali are actually the groups of chorus singers and dancers, with Oja as the leader and Palis as his assistants. A total of three or four Palis may be required for the dance and the principal one among them is called the Daina Pali. Apart from dancing, they also sing and play small cymbals, relating stories from the Epics and the Puranas.

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Satriya dance is a renowned classical dance of Assam, which was introduced by Srimanta Shankardev to propagate the religion of Vaishnavism. This form of dance is one of the eight principal classical dance forms of India and has a great cultural significance in the social scenario of the state. The basic aim of the Mahapurush, behind Satriya dance, was to preach to the common people the religious teachings that were commonly inaccessible to them.

Sattriya has its origin from Krishna focused Vaishnavism in Assam as introduced by the famous scholar, reformer and Vaishnaya saint Srimanta Sankardev. Sattriya classical dance is more than five hundred years older.

The dance form Sattriya is a powerful medium of interpretation of faith associated with Vaishnavism. This dance form has undergone various changes with time and always came out in a more expanded the form with distinctive styles. It has been preserved for many centuries as committed by the Vaishnava monasteries.

As the dance style is related to Sattras and possesses religious values, therefore, it was given the name of Sattriya. Sankaradeva has given the dance form his own unique ideas but by including the characteristics of numerous treatises and local folk dances.

Folk Dances

Folk dance is a way for people to express, share, and connect with their own traditional culture.

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Bihu Dance – This is the most popular folk dance of Assam and as the very name suggests, is related to the Bihu festival, which is celebrated with much pomp and glory throughout the state.

Jumur Nach – This is a typical folk dance performed by the tea community in the state, locally called ‘Chah Baganar Jumur Nach’ or the Jumur dance of tea garden. Boys and girls hold each other’s waist and dance to the tunes of the Jumur dance, with exact precision of foot work. Watching them sway to the tunes of the song is indeed a very pleasant experience.

Ali Ai Ligang dance – The Mishing community of Assam performs a dance while making an offering to their deities during the Ali Ai Ligang festival. This form of dance is seen only in the north-eastern parts of the state, namely Sonitpur and Lakhimpur.

Deodhani – Deodhani is a dance form associated with the worship of the snake goddess Manasa. This dance is performed by a girl who, in a trance-like inspired state, goes on dancing to the beats of the Ciphung (flute) and the Kham (drum). At one stage of the dance, she even takes a sword and a shield performing a virile war dance, honoring various gods and goddesses, like Shiva, Lakshmi etc.

Barpeta’s Bhortal Nritya – This form of dance is mainly a propagation of the Sankari culture of Assam and was originally developed by the well known Satriya artist, Narahari Burha Bhakat. During the festivals in the Barpeta and Guwahati regions, this dance is performed by a group of 6-10 dancers equipped with cyrnbols.

Dhuliya and Bhawariya – This is basically a form of theatrical performance, using masks, drums and cymbals.

Bodo’s Bagurumba – This is one of the best folk dances performed by the Bodo community of Assam. A number of Bodo girls, dressed in colorful apparels, dance to the tune of the tribe’s traditional musical instruments, with slow steps and outstretched hands. This is commonly seen in the Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Nalbari, Darrang and Sonitpur districts of Assam.

Khamba Lim – This is a typical folk dance of Assam, performed by two groups of men and women, who stand in two rows.

Assam Fairs & Festivals

Since times immemorial, the north-eastern state of Assam has been the home to a large number of fairs and festivals, most of which have their origins in the diverse beliefs of the numerous tribes and races residing there. But the most enticing fact is that every festival is participated in and equally enjoyed by all the Assamese, irrespective of their caste and religion. There is a sense of togetherness and unity seen among the masses during the festive

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season and the atmosphere everywhere is that of celebrations and merriment. Each and every festival is celebrated with equal passion and fervor, thus reflecting the lifestyle and tradition of the people of Assam.

Major Fairs & Festivals of Assam

Ambubachi Fair

The fairs in Assam, as in any other part of India, are associated with religious ceremonies in the temples. The most popular among these is the Ambubachi Fair. Celebrated in the urban area of Guwahati, it is the most important fair of the state, which revolves around the Kamakhya temple.

Bihu Festival

The most important and enchanting festival of Assam is Bihu, which is also its state- festival. The word Bihu originated from the Sanskrit word Vishu and is celebrated three times

a year, marking the change of season in accordance with the Assamese calendar.

Brahmaputra Festival

The onset of the spring season in January sends a note of excitement and thrills throughout Assam. Everyone is in the mood for adventure. The reason behind this is a unique festival, the Brahmaputra Beach Festival, which is held every year at this time.

Elephant Festival

In an attempt to conserve and protect the exclusive species that we know as Asiatic elephant, the northeastern state of Assam organizes an annual festival every year, at the Kaziranga National Park, known as Elephant Festival. This is joint operation by the Forest Department and Tourism Department of the Government of Assam.

Majuli Festival

Majuli festival is celebrated in the district of Majuli, which is the biggest river island in the world. It also serves as the center of Assamese civilization and is home to the Neo- Vaishnavite culture, for which the state is very renowned.

Tea Festival

Assam is known all across the globe for the production of the famous black tea. In fact tea has almost become a brand-identity for the name Assam. Total tea production in the state is around 400 million kg per annum, which accounts to 50% of the total tea production of India.

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Me- Dum-Me- Phi

Me- Dum-Me- Phi or the ancestor worship festival is celebrated by the Ahom community of Tai origin. In an attempt to develop contacts and communication among the people of the community, thousands of devotees meet every year at some common point. This is followed by processions in the streets and it is a must that everyone be dressed in the traditional attire.

Baishagu

The tribes of Bodo and Kachari celebrate Baishagu festival during the spring season, at the start of the Assamese New Year. It is a two-day festival and is spent amidst fun and gaiety. The first day begins with the worship of cows. The next day corresponds with the 1st day of the Assamese Bohag month. Lord Shiva (Bathou in native terms) is worshipped and offerings like rice beer and chicken are given to Him. The young ones bow down respectfully to the elders. The festival also witnesses dance performances, for which age and sex are no bar. Towards the closure of the festival, special community prayers are offered at a place called ‘Garjasali’.

Baikho

This is a spring time festival, celebrated by the Rabha community of Assam. Also called the Khoksi Puja, the festival comes across as the worship of the Goddess of Wealth, known as ‘Baikho’.

Bohaggiyo Bishu

The Deoris of Assam observe this festival during the spring season. Derived from the Chutiya word ‘Bisu’ (Bi- extreme, Su- rejoicing), the festival is a continuous celebration of 7 days. It usually starts on a Wednesday, with Than Puja and there is buffalo sacrifice every fourth year. This, in actual, is the replacement of the traditional human sacrifice practiced during the yester years. The major attractions of the festival are the Deodhani dance and Husori (folk song).

Ali-Ai- Ligang

Ali- Ai- Ligang festival is a reflection of the passion and vigor of the youth. Celebrated during the spring season, it is one of the most colorful festivals of Assam. It is organized by the Mising tribe in the month of ‘Ginmur Polo’ (February-March), on the first Wednesday of the month.

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Assamese music

Classical Assamese music is divided into Borgeet and Ojapali that were preceded by folksongs and ballads such as Bihugeet (for pastoral festivals), Bongeet (for nature-worship), Naworiageet (boatman’s song), Biyanaam (marriage song) and Nichukonigeet (cradle song). While these songs were documentary in character and without symbolism, Dehbisaror Geet had a pronounced spiritual bias, thus presumed to have been inspired by Vaishnavism.

The Islamic counterpart of Dehbisaror Geet was Zikir or spiritual chants composed by Ajan Fakir underscoring the futility of life and manmade institutions. These songs flourished alongside tribal music that had traces of East or Southeast Asian influence.

Ojapali

Ojapali can be categorized into two major forms – Byah Ojapali and Sukananni Ojapali, based on their style of performance. Byah Ojapali performers are also known as ‘Vyah-gowa’ or singers of Vyasa’s works, as they primarily focus on the great epics. On the other hand, Sukananni Ojapali performers are known as ‘Maroi-gowa’ or singers of Maroi Puja. These performers sing songs of the snake- goddess Manasa Devi, composed by Sukavi Narayana Dev, an ancient Assamese poet.

The performers of Ojapali render two types of songs called ‘malanci geet’ and ‘jagar’. The songs are sung in Sanskrit. They also sing ‘Patsha Geet’, a type of mixed song, which was composed during the Muslim reign. Besides singing, Oja, the chief performer, maintains the rhythm with his feet. Simultaneously, he explains the theme with suitable body movements and facial expressions. The costume worn by the performers are white gowns with long sleeves. They also wear various jewelry and ‘nupur’ on their feet.

Ramayana and Mahabharata are the dominant subjects of Byah Ojapali. The stories are sung in pure classical style based on various ragas, with dancing movements made by hands and fingers known as ‘mudras’. To entertain the crowd and make them understand, amusing dialogues with explanations are presented during the performance.

The heart-rending tale of Behula and Lakhindar from the Padma Purana is presented by the performers of Sukananni Ojapali. This art form is usually performed during Manasa Puja, to worship the Deity of serpents. The entertainers start their performance by singing songs in praise of several Gods and Goddesses before going on to the story divided into three parts namely, Deva Khanda, Baniya Khanda and Bhatiyali Khanda.

BORGEET

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Borgeets are a collection of lyrical songs, composed by Srimanta Sankardeva and Madhavdeva in the 15th-16th centuries, are used to begin prayer services in monasteries associated with the Ekasarana Dharma. They are a lyrical strain that express the religious sentiments of the poets reacting to different situations, and differ from other lyrics associated with the Ekasarana Dharma.

Sankardeva composed about two hundred and forty borgeets, but a fire destroyed them all and only about thirty four of them could be retrieved from memory. Madhavdeva composed more than two hundred borgeets, which focus mainly on the child- Krishna

The borgeets are written in the pada form of verse. The first pada, marked as dhrung, works as a refrain and is repeated over the course of singing of the succeeding verses. In the last couplet, the name of the poet is generally mentioned. The structure of borgeets is said to model the songs of 8-10th century Charyapada.

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Assam Languages

Assamese (Asamiya) is the major language spoken by the people of Assam. It is a very rich language and has its origins in the ancient Sanskrit. Spoken by a population of around 20 million, it is regarded as a major language by the Constitution of India. However, both Bodo and Assamese are regarded as the local official languages of Assam, whereas in the Barak valley region, Bengali has been given the same status. Besides Assam, Assamese is spoken in certain sectors of Arunachal Pradesh and other northeastern states also.

There is a striking resemblance between the Assamese language and Bengali as well as Oriya language. In fact, all three of them are said to have evolved from the Magadhi Prakrit. Magadhi Prakrit gave rise to four Apabhramsa dialects viz, Radha, Vanga, Varendra and Kamrupa. The Kamrupa, in turn, gave rise to Assamese and Bengali. Besides these two prime languages, a large number of native languages are also spoken within Assam. Some of them are Dimaca, Mishing, Karbi, Rabha, Tiwa etc. These languages belong to the Tibeto-Burman family.

Small pockets of ethnic groups like the Tai Phake, Tai Aiton, Tai Khamti, etc speak the Tai language, which has its origins in southern China and south-east Asia.

In the present-day Assam, due to the confluence of different cultures and traditions, a wide variety of other languages have also paved their way in the dialect of Assam. Some of them are Punjabi, Marwari, Bhojpuri, Manipuri etc. All these dialects are spoken by different cultural groups in Assam.

Dialect Groups Of Assamese

Due to some external influences, four distinct dialect groups of Assamese language have evolved. They are:

Eastern Group – Spoken in Sibsagar district and the areas around

Central Group – Spoken in Nagaon and the adjoining areas and the adjoining areas

Kamrupi Group – Spoken by Kamrup, Nalbari, Barpeta, Bongaigaon, Kokrajhar and Darrang

Goalparia group – Spoken by the people of Dhubri and Goalpara

Literature

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Assamese literature is the entire corpus of poetry, novels, short stories, documents and other writings in the Assamese language. It also includes popular ballads in the older forms of the language during its evolution to the contemporary form. The literary heritage of the Assamese language can be traced back to the c. 9- 10th century in the Charyapada, where the earliest elements of the language can be discerned.

History of Assamese literature

The history of the Assamese literature divided into three periods.

Early Assamese (6th to 15th century):
Middle Assamese (17th to 19th century)
Modern Assamese

Early Assamese (6th to 15th century):

Even though systematic errors in the Sanskrit of Kamarupa inscriptions betray an underlying Pakrit in the pre-12th century period, scarce examples of the language exist. The Charyapadas, the Buddhist ballads of 8th-10th century some of whose composers were from Kamarupa and the language of which bear strong affitinities with Assamese (beside Bengali, Maithili and Oriya), are considered the first examples of Assamese literature.

The spirit of the Charyapadas are found in later- day Deh-Bicaror Geet and other aphorisms; and some of the ragas found their way to the 15th-16th century Borgeets. In the 12th-14th century period the works of Ramai Pundit (Sunya Puran), Boru Chandidas (Krishna Kirtan), Sukur Mamud (Gopichandrar Gan), Durllava Mullik (Gobindachandrar Git) and Bhavani Das (Mainamatir Gan) bear strong grammatical relationship to Assamese; and their expressions and their use of adi-rasa are found in the later Panchali works of Mankar and Pitambar. These works too are claimed as examples of Bengali literature. After this period of shared legacy a fully differentiated Assamese literature finally emerged in the 14th century.

Pre-Sankardeva period

This period saw the flourishing of two kinds of literary activity: translations and adaptations, and choral songs.

Translations and Adaptations

Harivara Vipra, a court poet of Durlabhnarayana (1330-1350) of Kamata, with his work Vavruvahanar Yuddha (based on the Mahabharata) and Lava- Kuxar Yuddha (based on the Ramayana) provides the first date-able examples of Assamese literature. Though translated works, they contain local descriptions and embellishments, a feature that describes all translated work of this period. His

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Vavruvahanar Yuddha, for instance makes references to articles of the Ahom kingdom, which at that time was a small kingdom in the east, and describes the undivided

Lakhimpur region, and in Lava-Kushar Yuddha he departs from the original and describes local customs for Rama and Sita’s pumsavana ceremony. Other works in this class and period are Hema Saraswati’s Prahlada-caritra and Hara-Gauri- Samvada; Kaviratna Saravati’s Jayadratha-vadha; Rudra Kandali’s Satyaki-pravesa. All these works are associated with Durlabhanarayan of Kamata and his immediate successors.

The major work from this period that left a lasting impression is Saptakanda Ramayana, composed by Madhava Kandali, and recited in the court of a 14th-century Barahi-Kachari king Mahamanikya (Mahamanikpha) who ruled either in the Nagaon or the Golaghat region. In chronology, among vernacular translations of the original Sanskrit, Kandali’s Ramayana comes after Kamban’s (Tamil), and ahead of Kirttivas’ (Bengali, 15th century), Tulsidas’ (Awadhi, 16th century), Balaram Das’ (Oriya) etc.

The literary language (as opposed to the colloquial Assamese) this work adopted became the standard literary language for much of the following periods, till the rise of new literature in the 19th century. That his work was a major influence can be inferred from Sankardeva’s tribute to the “unerring predecessor poet”. The pada form of metrical verse (14 syllables in each verse with identical two syllables at the end of each foot in a couplet) became a standard in Assamese kavya works, something that continued till the modern times.

Middle Assamese (17th to 19th century)

This is a period of the prose chronicles (Buranji) of the Ahom court. The Ahoms had brought with them an instinct for historical writings. In the Ahom court, historical chronicles were at first composed in their original Tibetan-Chinese language, but when the Ahom rulers adopted Assamese as the court language, historical chronicles began to be written in Assamese.

From the beginning of the 17th century onwards, court chronicles were written in large numbers. These chronicles or buranjis, as they were called by the Ahoms, broke away from the style of the religious writers. The language is essentially modern except for slight alterations in grammar and spelling.

Modern Assamese

Effect of British rule

The British imposed Bengali in 1836 in Assam after the state was occupied in 1826. Due to a sustained campaign, Assamese was reinstated in 1873 as the state language. Since the initial printing and literary activity occurred in eastern Assam,

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the Eastern dialect was introduced in schools, courts and offices and soon came to be formally recognized as the Standard Assamese. In recent times, with the growth of Guwahati as the political and commercial center of Assam, the Standard Assamese has moved away from its roots in the Eastern dialect.

Influence of Missionaries

The modern Assamese period began with the publication of the Bible in Assamese prose by the American Baptist missionaries in 1819. The currently prevalent standard Asamiya has its roots in the Sibsagar dialect of Eastern Assam.

The Missionaries established the first printing press in Sibsagar in 1836 and started using the local Asamiya dialect for writing purposes. In 1846 they started a monthly periodical called Arunodoi, and in 1848, Nathan Brown published the first book on

The Missionaries published the first Assamese-English Dictionary compiled by M. Bronson in 1867. One of the major contributions of the American Baptist missionaries to the Assamese language is the reintroduction of Assamese as the official language in Assam. In 1848 missionary Nathan Brown published a treatise on the Assamese language. This treatise gave a strong impetus towards reintroducing Assamese the official language in Assam.

Modern Literature

The period of modern literature began with the publication the Assamese journal Jonaki (1889), which introduced the short story form first by Lakshminath Bezbaroa. Thus began the Jonaki period of Assamese literature. In 1894 Rajanikanta Bordoloi published the first Assamese novel Mirijiyori.

The modern Assamese literature has been enriched by the works of Jyoti Prasad Agarwalla, Birinchi Kumar Barua, Hem Barua, Atul Chandra Hazarika, Nalini Bala Devi, Navakanta Barua, Mamoni Raisom Goswami, Bhabendra Nath Saikia, Homen Borgohain, Nirupama Borgohain, Kanchan Baruah, Saurabh Kumar Chaliha and others.

Moreover, as regards the spreading of Assamese literature outside Assam, the complete work of Jyoti Prasad Agarwala has been translated into Hindi to reach a wider audience by Devi Prasad Bagrodia. Bagrodia has also translated Shrimanta Shankardev’s ‘Gunamala’ into Hindi.

In 1917 the Asam Sahitya Sabha was formed as a guardian of the Assamese society and the forum for the development of Assamese language and literature. Padmanath Gohain Baruah was the first president of the society.

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Sankardeva and the Neo-Vaishnavite Movement in Assam

Religion denotes man’s faith and creed concerning his vital relations to this mysterious universe and his duty and destiny here. The founder of a religion serves as a light of intellect a light kindled in darkness. He is a harbinger sent into the world with tidings from the Infinite.

Sankardeva came like many other prophets who had come before him and preached the message of humanity. His religion, for the Assamese, is like a rebirth and transformation from darkness into light and has been the religion and guiding force for the followers for the last six centuries. This Neo-Vaishnava “friend, philosopher and guide” and the doyen of Assamese culture has served as a beacon light for the masses.

The aishnavite religion propagated by Mahapursh Srimanta Sankardeva was the outcome of his wide experiences that emanated from various sources. In 1481, Sankardeva went on a pilgrimage to northern India where he spent several years visiting various Tirthas (Hindu holy places) and temples acquiring many dogmas that prevailed at that time. He was aware of the relevance of the Neo-Vaishnava movement growing in various parts of India and when he came back to his native land he directed his endeavours towards the formulation of the doctrines of his own form of Vaishnavism, namely, Eksaran Naamdharma. Sankardeva along with his staunchest disciple Madhavdava propagated his faith among the masses and within a short period of time, this new religion attained an all- pervasive nature.

Eksaran Naamdharma has three aspects: Eksaran, Satsanga and Naama.

Eksaran means seeking solace from one God, Satsanga denotes an assembly of Bhaktas (followers) for obeisance while Naama refers to chanting as a means of prayer. It forbids elaborate rituals and worship of idols while advocating an austere lifestyle for the Bhaktas (followers). Naama was considered to be sufficient for the common people because it could be performed by the high and the low.

Sankardeva reduced rituals to the minimum and emphasized on prayer through community chanting in private prayer-rooms called ‘Kirtanghars’ and congregation halls called ‘Naamghars’. Over a period of time, the Naamghars grew to be centres of every activity of the village: it was like a club where people gathered in the evening, it was the theatre where classical dramas were staged, it was the court where misconduct was adjudged and it was the place for discussion on various affairs of the village.

The Eksaran Naamdharma propagated by Sankardeva has been able to unify people from all walks of life, from the aristocrats to the poor and downtrodden, into one spiritual fraternity and thereby achieved a cultural synthesis. In Sankardeva’s religion the essence of democracy, as well as the spirit of socialism, can easily be traced. Every individual was considered equal in his religion and neither caste nor class was taken into account while inducting anyone into the faith. The prayer service and the distribution of Maahprasad (offerings to the Almighty) could be done by anyone within the circle of Bhaktas. Through

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such an egalitarian philosophy Sankardeva was able to bring about the concept of equality among mankind and thus weed out caste-related differences.

When Eksaran Naamdharma spread like a wildfire, it raised many an eyebrow of the Brahmins who foresaw an end to their dominance. The Brahmins plotted conspiracy against Sankardeva and coaxed the Ahom ruler Suhungmung also known as Dihingia Raja to take action against the reformist movement. Thus Srimanta Sankardeva was thus forced to flee downstream and seek the safety offered by the Koch kingdom of Naranarayana in western Assam. King Naranarayana retained an open mind towards the new religion and his brother Chilarai became an ardent admirer of Sankardeva. The Brahmins were again being afraid of Sankardeva’s growing popularity poisoned the mind of the king against Sankardeva, but Sankardeva so enamoured the king with his logic and sanctity that the king became his lifelong patron. During his undisturbed life at Chunpora (present-day Barpeta town), Sankardeva composed almost all his major literary works including the ‘Kirtan Ghosa’, an adaptation of ‘Bhagavatpurana’, the doctrinal treatise ‘Bhakti Ratnakar’ and such plays as Paarijat Harana, Kaliya Daman, Rukmini Haran and Keli Gopal. Sankardeva composed about two-hundred-and-forty Borgeets (written in the Brajavali dialect), but a fire destroyed them all and only about thirty-four of them could be retrieved from memory. Sankardeva, much saddened by this loss, gave up writing borgeets and asked Madhavdeva to write them instead. The Neo-Vaishnavite movement brought about a cultural revolution in the Brahmaputra valley apart from playing a significant role in unifying the people and imbuing in them a catholic sensibility. The moral standards set at the naamghars and xattras rescued the society from the depravity of earlier days and ushered in cultural renaissance along with religious reform. The xattras established by the disciples of Sankardeva have become the hubs of cultural activities, where classical music, dance and drama were cultivated. The Neo- Vaishnavites also gave birth to a distinct Assamese school of painting where holy books were enlivened by colourful paintings. They exploited the modes of the song, dance and drama with a view to explaining and popularizing the new religion. In this way, they could touch the minds and hearts of the common people. The rendering of Sanskrit and Vaishnavite treatises into vernacular as well as their original compositions created a body of literature which resulted in bringing about a literary movement apart from developing Assamese prose. The Ankiyanaats composed by them were immensely popular and gave rise to a vibrant theatrical movement. Their musical compositions formulated a culture of classical music and they left behind a rich legacy of classical dancing in the Xattriya dance form.

The four fundamental elements of Neo-Vaishnavism are

(i) God,

(ii) Guru (the religious preceptor)

(iii) the fraternity of Bhakats (devotees) and

(iv) Nam.

Sonitpur

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Sonitpur is a district in the state of Assam. Sonitpur district is spread over an area of 5324 sq. kms. on north bank of Brahmaputra river. In terms of area Sonitpur is the second largest district of Assam after Karbi Anglong district.

In terms of population it ranks third in Assam after Kamrup and Nagaon districts. The people here are not a homogeneous lot. Rather, they are a mosaic of ethnic groups, an admixture of diverse types of people.

The District lies between 26° 30’N and 27° 01’N latitude and between 92° 16’E and 93° 43’E longitude. Located between mighty Brahmaputra River and Himalayan foothills of Arunachal Pradesh, the district is largely plain with some hills. Brahmaputra River forms the south boundary of the district. A number of rivers which originate in the Himalayan foothills flow southwards and ultimately fall in Brahmaputra River.

Tezpur can be described as the cultural capital of Assam. Every landscape of Tezpur reflects its rich cultural heritage since time immemorial. Tezpur was a cradle to three doyens of Assamese Culture: Rupkonwar Jyotiprasad Agarwala, Kalaguru Bishnu Prasad Rava, and Natasurya Phani Sarma.

History of Sonitpur

The name `Sonitpur’ as well as Tezpur literally means “the city of blood”. It reminds of the romantic legend of Usha and Anirudha. The legend revolves around Banasura, the great Asura king of ancient Tezpur, his beautiful daughter Usha and her friend Chitralekha. The princess saw a handsome prince in her dreams and fell in love with him. Chitralekha, a talented artist, not only painted his portrait from Usha’s description but recognised him to be Aniruddha, the grandson of Lord Krishna and ruler of Dwarka. Using her magical powers, Chitralekha spirited Aniruddha away to the princess’ boudoir where the two married each other according to Gandharva rites, without the knowledge of the king.

When Banasura learnt of the clandestine romance, he imprisoned Aniruddha, which led to the arrival of Lord Krishna to rescue his grandson. A fierce battle followed and the entire city was drenched in human blood, hence the name Sonitpur or Tezpur, i.e. ‘the city of blood’. The story of eternal love between Usha and Aniruddha finds expression in many stories, novels, dramas, dance-dramas, movies.

Sir Edward A. Gait (1897) had made reference to the nine line inscription of Harjjar Varma in his “A History of Assam.” The inscription is the first recorded history of Assam and dates back to 829 A.D. The inscription was found engraved on a massive stone some two kms away from Tezpur town situated near a temple called Rudrapad.

Salastambha dynasty ruled Kamrupa from seventh to Tenth century A.D. The accurate boundary of their kingdom is debatable. But the erstwhile Darrang was certainly a part of the kingdom. They shifted their capital from Pragjyotishpur to Haruppeswara, or Hatappeswara- the present day Tezpur. The famous King of the dynasty Harjjar Varma, besides other things had excavated a large pond in 70 acres of land, later came to be known

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as Hajara Pukhuri ( Harjjara Pukhuri ).Pal dynasty ruled Haruppeswara till the 12th century. The most famous ruler of the Pal dynasty was Brahmapal.

After the Pal dynasty” the royal dominance of the Koch Kings in the west and the Ahoms in the east started growing. During the 14th and 15th century a large part of the western bank of Brahmaputra from Singri in the west and Sootea in the east was ruled by the Bara-Bhuyans. The great saint poet Sri Sri Shankardeva belonged to Bara-Bhuyan family, who settled at Rowta in Darrang District.

The Ahom King Suhungmung alias Dihingia Raja occupied the territories of the Bara- Bhuyans on the north in 1505 A.D.The Koch King Biswa Sinha rose to power in 1515 A.D. King Naranarayana who ascended the thorne in about 1540 A. D. divided his Kingdom into two parts. He had given the eastern part to the son of his brother Chilarai and the western part of the kingdom to his own son Lakshminarayana. But soon after their ascension as kings, fatricidal wale out and Lakshminarayana sought refuge with the Mughals which eventually led to invasion of Kamrup by the Mughals. Balinarayana, one of the brothers of Pariksitnarayana fled away to Gorgaon to seek the help of the Ahom king Swargadew Pratapsingha. Pratapsingha christened Balinarayana as Dharmanarayana, made him the king of Darrang and declared war against the the Mughals (1616-1637 A.D.).

The Ahoms defeated the mighty Mughals in the Bharali war and re-occupied Darrang from the Mughals. King Dharmanarayana made supreme sacrifice in Singari war in 1638. His son Sundarnarayana ascended the throne and became the king of Darrang.(excluding Tezpur). On the otherhand, the Ahoms ruled the eastern part of Darrang (present Sonitpur) through Kalia Bhomora Borphukan, stationed at Kaliabor. The Ahom Kings resettled many people in the southern part of Brahmaputra.

The British annexed the then Assam into the Indian British Empire in 1826. After1826 the Lower Assam and the Central Assam (Darrang, Nagaon and Raha) were made one division which extended up to Biswanath. The division was placed under one Administrative Officer designated as the Principal Assistant to the Commissioner.

The Upper Assam portion was left to the native rulers with supervisory control under a British political agent with political headquarters at Biswanath. Captain Neufville was the political agent for Upper Assam. Darrang Division was administered till 1833 from Guwahati.

Darrang was converted into a district and Mangaldai was made the district Headquarter in 1833. But due to various reasons the British shifted the head quarter to Tezpur in 1835. The district comprised of two sub-divisions, Tezpur sadar sub-division and Mangaldoi sub-division with head quarter at Mangaldoi. The District of Darrang was divided in to six Revenue Circles under one Sub-Deputy Collector in each Circle. There was one Transferred area in the district at Charduar. An Asstt. Political Officer was posted at Charduar under the Deputy Commissioner who acted as Political Officer.

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Tezpur was a small township then. The British developed Tezpur as a small garrison township. Later, tea gardens were set-up throughout the district. The old steamarghat at Jahajghat, the Dak-Bungalow, the then Chummery compound at present Don-Bosco School campus, the Planters Club of Tezpur (Stations Club), the Jahajghat Railway Station, the Church of Ephiphany etc and many tea gardens are some of the examples of the contributions of the British.

There is no specific information about the alignment of the people of the district in the earlier struggle for liberation waged by the princely and upper class people in Upper Assam from 1828 to 1857. But, with the spread of western education during the last part of the 19th century a new awakening surcharged the patriots of the land.

Few years before the birth of the Indian National Congress in Bombay in 1885, the Tezpur Ryot Sabha was formed by a group of enlightened people primarily to protest against the enhancement of land revenue and to ventilate other public grievances.

The Tezpur Ryot Sabha sent Kali Krishna Barkakoti to as its delegate to the National Congress in 1885. It had played an active role in early period of the freedom struggle. The All Assam Student Association formed in 1916 worked in the district under the leadership of Chandra Nath Sarma. In June, 1921, the Tezpur District Congress Committee was formed under the presidentship of Chandra Nath Sarma. In August 1921, Mahatma Gandhi visited Tezpur and recorded his impression of the visit in Young India in the article “From the Bank of Brahmaputra “. In 1934 Mahatma Gandhi visited Tezpur again during the course of Civil Disobedience Movement. In the final phase of British Period the Quit India Movement gained momentum with the slogan ” Do or Die” in places like Tezpur, Sootea, Gohpur, Dhekiajuli and Jamuguri.

On 10th September 1942, at Gohpur a young girl led a procession of unarmed villagers under Congress flag. She was Kanaklata Barua – a girl from Barangabari village. As soon as Kanaklata unfurled the flag she and her companion Mukunda Kakati were gunned down by the armed Police. The saga of her heroic sacrifice is still remembered with pride. On the same day at Dhekiajuli Police Station eleven unarmed villagers were gunned down by the armed Police while trying to hoist the tri- color at the Police Station – three of the were teen-aged girls- Tileswari, Numali and Khahuli. Finally, the British era had come to an end on 15th August “1947” when India gained her Independence in the midnight of 14th August.

The administration set up by the British continued even after Independence. Darrang district with head quarter at Tezpur continued as an impotant district of Assam.

Towards 1961, Tezpur started to become a center of Trade and Commerce. A year later, in 1962, war broke out with China. The Chinese Army advanced up-to Sessa near Bhalukpung. People started fleeing from their homes. The war had left a bitter experience in the minds of the people of the district. In 1983, Darrang district was bifurcated. Tezpur sadar sub-division was named as Sonitpur district with an outlying Sub-Division at Biswanath Chariali. Mangaldoi sub-division was named as Darrang district. On 15th August, 2000, another Sub-

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Division namely Gohpur Sub-Division was carved out from the erstwhile Biswanath Sub- Division.

Cotton University (Earlier known as Cotton College)

Cotton University (formerly known as Cotton College) is a public state university located in Guwahati, Assam, India. It was established in 2017 by the provisions of an Act from the Assam Legislative Assembly which merged Cotton College State University and Cotton College.

Established in the year 1901, Cotton College is one of the oldest and most reputed higher education institutes of Assam. It is named after its founder, Sir Henry Stedman Cotton who introduced this institute after appraising the grave need for higher education institutes in India. The college played a central role during the freedom movement of India. Initially, the college was affiliated to Calcutta University but is now affiliated to Guwahati University. This was the 1st ever college to introduce Persian Language and Literature Full-time course.

The Cotton College in Guwahati has been rechristened as the Cotton University, post the merger in 2017 of the college by the name with the Cotton College State University (CCSU). The merged entity may be new, but the original Cotton College has tremendous history and heritage value, having been founded way back in the year 1901. It was the oldest institution for higher education, not just for the state of Assam, but also for the whole of the North-East region, back then. It was initially named after Sir Henry Stedman Cotton. The college also received the Special Heritage College status in 2015, having been declared as a Centre of Excellence in 1992.

The Cotton College was initially affiliated to the Calcutta University, but later became a constituent unit of the Gauhati University, in 1948 post-independence. Even later came under the aegis of the Cotton College State University in 2011. The Cotton University has been accredited by the NAAC (National Assessments and Accreditation Council) with an A++ grade rating. Research is a very important part here. The Cottonian magazine is published towards that prerogative. The alumni of the Cotton College is like a Who’s Who of prominence in Assam. The list includes the likes of – Gopinath Bordoloi, Bhupen Hazarika, Jyoti Prasad Rajkhowa, Anupam Saikia and Indira Goswami among others.

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List of principals

(List)

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List continued

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List continued

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Leading personalities of Assam

Natasurya Phain Sarma: Born in 1910 at Tezpur, Phani Sarma was an was an Assamese Natasurya Phani theatre actor, playwright, film actor and director. His father name Sarma was Molan Sarma. His first movie was Jyoti Prasad Agarwalzs Jay mati in 1935. He acted and directed Siraj in 1948 with Bishnu Rabha and Pioli Phukan in 1955. He also memorably acted the lead in the films Piyali Phukan, as a legendary prince-turned-patriot.

Bir Chilari: Born in 1510, the younger brother of king Nara Narayana(Kamata kingdom), was known as Shukladhwaj. He was was a great general who belonged to the Koch royal dynasty of Assam. He was Nara Narayana’s commander-in-chief, and he got his name Chilarai because his movement as a general was as fast as a chila (kite). Chilarai is known to have descended from the powerful founder of the Koch dynasty of Kamatapur

Maniram Dewan: Born in 17 April 1806 Maniram Dutta Barua, popularly known as Maniram Dewan was first people to establish tea gardens in Assam. He was an Assamese nobleman in British India. He established tea gardens at Chinamara in Jorhat and at Singlou in Sibsagar district. He played an active role in the freedom movement of Assam.

Chaolung Sukapha: Founder of the Ahom kingdom in 1228 Chaolung Sukaphaa (Chao means Lord and Lung means Great), also known as Siu-Ka-Pha was the was the first Ahom king in medieval Assam. A Tai prince originally from Mong Mao, the kingdom he established in 1228 existed for nearly six hundred years and in the process unified the various tribal and non-tribal peoples of the region that left a deep impact on the region. In reverence to his position in Assam’s history the honorific Chaolung is generally associated with his name.

Srimanta Madhavdev: Madhabdev one of the most popular Vaishnava Saints in Assam, who is known as Mahapurush. Saint-poet and author Madhavdeva composed Nam ghoxa and Bhakti Ratnavali – two of the important spiritual works in Assam. Madhabdev was born in May/June 1489 at Letekupukhuri in Lakhimpur District of Assam to Govindagiri Bhuyan and Manorama. Govindagiri was a descendant of Hari Bhuyan (alias Haripala), one of the Bhuyan’s who accompanied Candivara (Sankardev’s forefather) in the 14th century as part of an exchange between Dharmanarayana of Gauda and Durlabhnarayan of Kamarupa-Kamata. Govindagiri became a Majinder at Banduka, (in Rangpur District in present-day Bangladesh) and established his family (wife and a son) there.

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Nabakanta Barua: Nabakanta Barua popularly known as Ekhud Kokaideu among assamese poples was a prominent Assamese novelist and poet. He was born December 29, 1926 in Guwahati to Nilakanta Barua, a school inspector and later teacher, and Swarnalata Baruani. At first the family lived in upper Assam, then moved to Puranigudam and lastly lived in Nagaon town.

Nalinibala Devi: Daughter of famous Indian freedom movement activist and writer Karmaveer Nabin Chandra Bordoloi, Nalini Bala Devi was born in Guwahati in 1898 was best known female poet of her era. She was a noted Indian writer and poet of Assamese literature, known for nationalistic as well as mystical poetry. She was awarded the Padma Shri by the Government of India in 1957 for her contribution to literature, and 1968 she won the Sahitya Akademi Award given by Sahitya Akademi (India’s National Academy of Letters) for her poetry collection Alakananda.

Dr. Bhabendra Nath Saikia: Winner of Sahitya Academy award & Padma Shri, novelist, student of science, researcher, physicist, editor, short story writer and film director from Assam Dr. Bhabendra Nath Saikia was born on February 20, 1932 at Fouzdaripatti, a well-known area within the Nagaon town. He had a PhD in Nuclear Physics from the University of London and later taught at Gauhati University. He won many literary awards, including Sahitya Academy (1976), and was also recognised with the Padma Shri.

Pratima Pandey: Pratima Pandey or Pratima Barua Pandey was a popular folk singer from the royal family of Gauripur in Western Assam’s Dhubri district. She was one of the greatest folk artists that Assam has ever produced, is an interesting phenomenon. She not only helped the revival and consolidation of a folk form facing impending oblivion, but also became the subject of a vibrant contemporary folklore of the times. Her life reflects the various phases of the evolving Assamese identity, and how the folk acted as a syncretic energy in the understanding of the Assamese. She was best known for her immortal Goalpariya songs Hastir Kanya and Mur Mahut Bandhure, was the niece of filmmaker Pramathesh Barua of Devdas fame.

Piyoli Piyoli Phukan: in fact, is a unique character in the story of India’s freedom struggle. After a tumultuous trial, on July 26, 1830 Piyoli Phukan was hanged by the British for his heroic patriotism. On 1955 Piyoli Phukan movie released directed by Phani Sharma.

Phani Sarma’s ‘Piyoli Phukan’received the “Certificate of Merit” and became the first Assamese movie to bag the National Award. The famous song Tejore Kamalapati by Bhupen Hazarika from movie Piyoli Phukan is still popular.

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Pandit Somaram Chutia: Commonly popular as Vaishnav Pandit in Assam, Sonaram Chutia was born in 8th June, 1915 in Bamkukurachowa Gaon, Kakojan of present Jorhat district Assam. His father was Jagiram Chutia and mother was Fuleswari Chutia. He was the chief adviser of Srimanta Sankardev Sangha. A Gandhian in life, Chutia was a Class X student when he saw Gandhiji for the first time, and met him personally later in Maharashtra

Tarun Gogoi: Tarun Gogoi the most successfull chief minister of Assam who served as the Chief Minister of Assam since 2001 for three consecutive terms. He was born in 1st Apr 1936 into a Ahom family in Jorhat district. His father was Dr. Kamaleswar Gogoi and mother Usha Gogoi. He is a member of the Indian National Congress and served six terms as a Member of Parliament (MP) from the Lok Sabha from Kaliabor, Nagoan since 1991.

Khangen Mahanta: Populrly known as Bihu Samrat of Assam (King of Assamese Bihu Songs) Khagen Mahanta the notable person in assamese folk music was born in 17 August 1942 in Aamtala Gajala Satra (Satras are Mahapuruxiya monasteries established by the great Bhakti Saints Mahapurusha Srimanta) near Jajari Borguri, Nagaon district of Assam. His father was Harendranath Mahanta and mother Lakshmipriya Devi.

Kushal Konwar: Kushal Konwar only martyr in the country who was hanged during the Quit India Movement of 1942. Assam had played a significant role in the Indian freedom struggle. Many sons of Assam did her proud by sacrificing life for the cause of the country. Among them all, Kushal Konwar stands out as a bright star of India.

Lokapriya Gopinath Bordoloi: Gopinath Bordoloi a leading Indian independence activist and the first Chief Minister of Assam was born on 6 June 1890 at Raha. His father Budheswar Bordoloi was in the Government medical service in a junior cadre. His mother Praneswari Devi died when Gopinath was only 12. He was a follower of the Gandhian principle of non violence as a political tool. Due to his unselfish dedication towards Assam and its people, the then Governor of Assam Jayram Das Doulatram conferred him with the title “Lokapriya” (loved by all).

Tarun Ram Phookan: Tarun Ram Phookan, polpularly known as Deshbhakta (Dexbhakta) in assam, was born in Guwahati in Kamrup District of Assam.

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In 1921, Assam Provincial Congress Committee (APCC) was formed with its headquarter at Guwahati and Kuladhar Chaliha as its president. Tarun Ram Phookan became the president. The reconstituted APCC elected Phookan, Gopinath Bordoloi, Bimala Prasad Chaliha, Chandranath Sarmah, Krishna Nath Sarmah and Kanak Chandra Sarmah as the members of the AICC. This new committee initiated and invited Gandhiji to Assam in 1921 to propagate the message of non-co-operation amongst the masses. Gandhi’s visit gave tremendous impetus to the congress workers to carry out the non-cooperation movement and implement the principles of Swadeshi.

Bhupen Hazarika: Bhupen Hazarika born in 8th September 1926 was an Indian singer, composer, lyricist, music director, and filmmaker from Assam, a state in the north-eastern part of India. A multifaceted genius, he was a good poet, music composer, singer, actor, journalist, author and film-maker of the very highest repute. He was the only living pioneer of Assam’s film industry in the Northeast, and has been therefore, rightly hailed as the uncrowned king of North-Eastern India.s cultural world.

Hazarika also held the position of the Chairman of the Sangeet Natak Akademi from December 1998 to December 2003.

He was posthumously awarded both the Padma Vibhushan, India’s second-highest civilian award, in 2012 and the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award, in 2019.

Jyoti Prasad Agarwala: Jyoti Prasad Agarwala, the first film maker of Assam who is belonged to Marwar of Rajasthan did so much for his birthplace Assam that there are hardly few other names in Assam which come close to his level. He is no one but Jyoti Prasad Agrawala. Jyoti Prasad Agarwala was a true Assamese in heart. He is the “Rupkonwar” of Assam. Forefather of Rupkonwar who hed came to Assam from rajasthan in the year 1811. Songwriter and poet Jyoti Prasad Agarwala’s death anniversary (January 17) is celebrated as “Silpi Divas” in Assam in his honour.

Laxminath Bezbarua: Laxminath Bezbarua the author of Assamese journal Jonaki (1889), which begins the period of modern assamese literature. Thus began the Jonaki period of Assamese literature. Laxminath Bezbaruah popularly known as Rasaraj(Some people says Roxoraj) or ‘The King of Humour’ born in November 1868.

Zubeen Garg: Zubeen Garg is an Indian singer, music director, composer, lyricist, music producer, actor, film director, film producer, script writer and philanthropist. Garg was born in Tura, Meghalaya to Mohini Borthakur and Ily Borthakur. He was named after the music composer of Zubin Mehta.

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Zubeen Garg primarily creates for and sings in the Assamese, Hindi and Bengali language film and music industries but also has sung in many other different languages and dialects which include Boro, English, Goalpariya, Kannada, Karbi, Bishnupriya Manipuri, Khasi, Malayalam, Marathi, Odia, Nepali, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, Tiwa. He is also an instrumentalist who plays various instruments like dhol, dotara, mandolin, keyboard etc.

Zubeen Garg is also the Brand Ambassador of Borthakurs IAS ACADEMY (The Premium Civil Service Coaching Academy of India ).

Garg runs a charity, the Kalaguru Artiste Foundation. Garg won the “Best Music Direction” for the film Echoes Of Silence in the 55th National Film Awards. He was nominated for the “Best Music Direction” for the film Dinabandhu in the 52nd National Film Awards. He got Seuji-Seuji award for his poetry book in 2017.

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Logo

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Part B: Geography of Assam

Geography of Assam

Syllabus: Geography of Assam:

Broad physical features, Major physiographic divisions, Natural Resources of Assam, Climate, Natural Vegetation, Forests, Wildlife and Bio- diversity, Mines and Minerals, Population and Major

Industries.

Index

Broad Physical Features of Assam
Physiographic division of Assam

2.1 The Brahmaputra Valley

2.2 The Barak Valley

2.3 The Karbi Plateau

2.4 The Barail and

2.5 The Southern Hills.

Natural Resources of Assam

3.1 Mineral Resources

3.2 Forest Resources

3.3 Water Resources

3.4 Energy/Oil/Gas Based industry

Climate of Assam
Natural Vegetation, Forests, Wildlife and Bio-diversity

The Bio-spectrum

Diverse Plant Communities

The orchids of Assam

Bamboos in Assam

Medicinal Plant diversity

Wetlands and Aquatic Plant Diversity

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Endemic Flora
Rare and Endangered Species
The Rich Faunal Diversity

Mammalian Diversity

Primate Diversity

Avian Diversity

Protected area of Assam
River system of Assam and water resources

Brahmaputra River System

Dams and Projects in Brahmaputra River

Barak River System

Wetlands
Lakes/Ponds
Swampy/Marshy areas
Water Pollution
Industries in Assam

Tea Industries

Small Tea Growers

Industrial infrastructure

Food processing and Agro based Industries

Mineral based and Plastic industries

Bamboo based industries

Hospitality industry and Tourism

Demography of Assam

Assam Population 2011

Assam: Religious Data

Ethnic groups

Languages in Assam

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Geography of Assam

The State of Assam, popularly known as the land of the red river and blue hills is the gateway to the North East India. Geographically the state extends from 22°19′ to 28°16′ North Latitude and 89°42′ to 96°30′ East Longitude between the foot hills of the Eastern Himalayas and the Patkai and Naga Hill Ranges.

The state is bordered in the North by Bhutan and in the East by Arunachal Pradesh. Along the south lie Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram. Meghalaya lies to the South West, West Bengal and Bangladesh to the West. The State is divided into 34 administrative districts.

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Broad Physical Features of Assam

A land of plains and river valleys, the Y-shaped Assam (resting on its side) depends much on Brahmaputra River flowing from the Himalayas for growing a number of cash crops including tea and other plantations.

Broadly speaking, the state has been classified into three main regions – the Brahmaputra river valley in the north, the Barak river valley (upper Surma River) in the south and the hill areas between Meghalaya (in the west) and Nagaland and Manipur (to the east) in the south-central parts of the state.

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It is to be noted that of all three broad regions, the valley formed by Brahmaputra River is the largest and according to Hindu scriptures, this sacred river is considered as the son of God Brahma. Further, it is said that the river originated from a ‘sacred pool’ known as the Brahmakund in the neighbouring state of Arunachal Pradesh.

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The mighty river enters Assam near Sadiya at the extreme northeast part of the state and flows westward for nearly 725 km before turning south to enter the plains of Bangladesh.

Dotted with a number of isolated hills and ridges that rise suddenly from the plains, the valley is around 80 km wide and is surrounded on all sides except on the west by mountains.

A large number of streams and rivulets that directly flow from the hills empty into the Brahmaputra River whose width enlarges many times before it enters central Assam.

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Only a small portion of the Barak River valley lies within Assam’s borders, but it nevertheless forms an extensive lowland area which is vital for agriculture in the southern region of the state.

The Brahmaputra and Barak valleys have formed ancient sediments consisting of clay, silt or gravel (deposited by rushing steams) over the centuries.

These sediments themselves carry a number of deposits from the Neogene and Paleogene periods that are some 2.6-65 million years old.

Some of early deposits are hard sandstone, soft and loose sand, conglomerates, coal seams, shales, sandy clays and limestone.

According to archaeologists, the North Cachar Hills which is now part of the Meghalaya plateau is an extension of a subcontinent called Gondwana, an ancient landmass in the southern hemisphere that once consisted of South America, Africa, Australia, and part of the Indian subcontinent as one geographical entity.

The elevated part of the Meghalaya plateau displays a rugged topography as it is isolated from the main region by the embankments on the Kepili River.

This upland generally has a northerly slope, with average elevations ranging from about 1,500 feet to about 3,300 feet.

Between the Brahmaputra valley and the south-central hill region are the northern ranges, which extend north-eastward from Dabaka (east of Dispur) to Bokakhat in east-central Assam.

The Rengma Hills to the south of the ridge average about 3,000 feet and their most prominent peak is Chenghehishon (4,460 feet). Cage abo

Physiographic division of Assam

Assam is a land of biodiversity. Assam’s unique climatic and landforms variation from east to west and from north to south supports a wide variety of flora and fauna. Physiographically Assam can be divided into four divisions

The Brahmaputra Valley.
The Barak Valley.
The Karbi Plateau

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The Barail and the Southern Hills.
Brahmaputra Valley:

The Brahmaputra valley is the major physiographic division of Assam. It covers about 72 per cent of the total area of Assam. It got its name because of the mighty Brahmaputra river which drains it.

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Characteristics of Brahmaputra Valley:

Length: 720km(east-west direction)

Wide: 80km(north-south direction)

It is bounded by Eastern Himalayas in the north and east and by the Naga hills, Karbi and Meghalaya Plateaus in the South and in the west it merges with the plains of West Bengal and Bangladesh

The Valley slopes from north-east to south-west with an average gradient of 13cm per km.

。 Slope is higher in the north-easten part. It is about 17cm/km near Dibrugarh.

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It is about 10cm/km near Guwahati.

Can be divided into four distinct physiographic units:

The nothern foothills.
The north and south bank plains.
The flood plains and charlands.
The southern foothills.
The nothern foothills:

Comprises the sub-Himalayan ranges and the soil composed of maily tertiary sandstones.

It is a narrow zone with elevation raging from 150m to 600m.

wider in the western part and narrorer in the eastern part (Sonitpur, Biswanath, Lakimpur & Dhemaji)

In this zone water in the stream disappears in the upstream and reappears in the downstream in southern part of the zone.

2.The north and south bank plains:

The north bank plain:

It comprises the largest part of Brahmaputra valley

Consists of alluvial soil, which is suitable for agriculture thus this area is thickly populated.

Average width in the lower Assam region is 30km and in the upper Assam it is about 10km.

Rivers or north bank tributaries of brahmaputra: Ranganadi, Buroi, Borgong, Jia Bharali, Gabharu, Belsri, Dhansiri, Noanadi, Nanoi, Barnadi, Puthimari, Pagladiya, Manas-Aie- Beki, Champabati, Gaurang, Tipkai & Godadhar.

The southern plain:

It is narrower than the north bank.

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Its width in the district of kamrup, Goalpara and Dhubri is only about 5km due to extention of the Meghalaya Plateau.

Towards the east of Guwahati to the Kopili Plain it becomes wider due to the geomorphic processes of Kopili river.

The souuthern plain again becomes narror in the western part of Nagaon and Golaghat district due to the extention of Karbi- Plateau.

Towards the east of Golaghat district the plain is wide because of the geomorphological processes of rivers.

Rivers or south bank tributaries of brahmaputra: Kopili, Dhansiri, Dikhow, Burhi-Dihing, Dibru.

3.The flood plains and charlands:

。 It includes the active floodplain i.e stream area of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries, sandbar and charlands formed on the bed of the Brahmaputra, and the wet lands charaterised with frequent floods between the north and south bank plains.

The southern Foothills:

。 It includes the foothills (rolling hills) of Meghalaya Plateau, Karbi- Plateau, Barail Range and Patkai-Naga hills.

Barak Valley

It is also known as Cachar Plain. It is formed due to the alluvial deposits of Barak river and its tributaries. The valley is bordered by Meghalaya Plateau and Barail range of North Cachar hill district on the north, manipur hills on the east and Mizo hills on the south and on the west the plain merges with the Surma plain of the Sylhet district of Bangladesh.

Rivers: Barak, Chiri, Diksa, Digli,Jiri,Sonai, Langai, Dhaleswari-Katakhal, Madhura.

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Physical Map of ASSAM

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The Karbi Plateau.

It is a part of the Meghalaya Plateau.

It is divided into two parts- the eastern and the western part by the Kopili valley.

The eastern part covers the Karbi Anglong District with Diphu as division headquarter. It is covered by Rengma hills.

The western part is smaller in size and covers the entire Western Karbi Anglong district with divisional headquarter at Harem.

Rivers: Kopili & Barapani and their tributaries

The Barail and the southern Hills:

It covers the entire North Cavhar Hill district.

The Barail range connects the Naga Hills in the east to the .Meghalayan Plateau in the west.

As per the plate tectonics, Assam is in the eastern-most projection of the Indian Plate, where the plate is thrusting underneath the Eurasian Plate creating a subduction zone and the Himalayas. Assam possesses a unique geomorphic environment, with

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plains, dissected hills of the South Indian Plateau system and with the Himalayas all around its north, north-east and east. Geomorphic studies conclude that the Brahmaputra, the life-line of Assam is an antecedent river, older than the Himalayas.

The river with steep gorges and rapids in Arunachal Pradesh entering Assam, becomes a braided river (at times 16 km wide) and with tributaries, creates a flood plain (Brahmaputra Valley: 80-100 km wide, 1000 km long).

The hills of Karbi Anglong, North Cachar and those in and close to Guwahati (also Khasi-Garo Hills) now eroded and dissected are originally parts of the South Indian Plateau system. In the south, the Barak originating in the Barail Range (Assam- Nagaland border) flows through the Cachar district with a 40-50 km wide valley and enters Bangladesh with the name Surma.

Natural Resources of Assam

Assam is rich in natural resources. The natural resources of Assam may be classified under following heads – mineral, forest, water and agricultural resources.

The State is one of the richest biodiversity zones in the world and consists of tropical rainforests, deciduous forests, riverine grasslands, bamboo orchards and numerous wetland ecosystems. Assam is abundant on mineral resources like coal, petroleum; limestone and natural gas. It is also the largest producer of crude oil in India.

Other minor minerals include magnetic quartzite, kaolin, sillimanites, iron ore, clay and feldspar etc. Oil India Limited (OIL) is the second largest hydrocarbon exploration and production Indian public sector company with its operational headquarters in Duliajan, Assam, India under the administrative control of the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas.

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ASSAM MAP

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In Assam, agriculture makes the highest contribution to its domestic sectors, accounting for more than a third of Assam’s income and employs about 69% of workforce. Assam has the single largest tea growing area in the world, constituting around one-seventh of the global tea production. Camellia assamica is the native variety of tea. The state accounts for over 50 per cent in the country’s overall tea production.

Assam also accounts for fair share of India’s production of rice, rapeseed, mustard, jute, potato, sweet potato, banana, papaya, areca nut and turmeric.

Assam is also a home to large varieties of citrus fruits, vegetables, leafy vegetables, useful grasses, herbs, spices, etc. which are mostly subsistence crops. Assam Silk denotes the three major types of indigenous wild silks produced in Assam- Golden Muga Silk, White Pat and warm Eri Silk.

Mineral Resources

Crude Oil:

Crude oil is the most important mineral product of Assam. The total production of petroleum crude in Assam accounts for nearly 50 per cent of the country’s total

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petroleum output till 1970. Assam produced 15 per cent of total petroleum crude produced in India. Crude oil is available in Sibsagar, Jorhat, Golaghat, Tinsukia and Dibrugarh.

The total crude oil reserve in Assam is estimated to be around 70.46 million tonnes. Oil deposits in Assam are found in Naharkatiya, Moran, Hugrizan, Rudrasagar, Galeky, Lakwa, Nazira, Teok, etc.

Natural Gas:

In terms of natural gas, Assam is well blessed by nature. The total reserve of natural gas in Assam is estimated to be 23,000 million cubic metres. Natural gas in Assam is available in Naharkatiya, Moran and some other parts of the Upper Assam area.

Namrup Fertilizer plant and Namrup Gas Thermal Power Project are the main two projects using natural gas in Assam. On the other hand, Brahmaputra Crackers and Polymer Limited (BCPL) is present in the Dibrugarh district. Moreover, in recent years, the total amount of natural gas utilised in Assam has increased.

Coal:

Coal is one of the important mineral product in Assam. Coal provides fuel to households and industries in Assam along with other by-products. The major coalfields in Assam are situated at Margherita, Nazira, Lankadaman, Makum, Jaipur, Ledo, Namdum, etc.

As per GSI assessment, the total coal reserve of Assam is 295.2 million metric tonnes. The total annual production of coal in Assam is about 6 lakh tonnes. Assam constituted 0.49 per cent of the total coal production of the country as a whole.

Limestone:

Limestone is used as an important raw material for the production of Cement. Limestone is an important mineral product of Assam. Limestone mines of Assam are situated at Garampani and Koliajan in the district of Karbi Anglong and North Cachar Hills.

The total limestone reserve of the Garampani and Koliajan areas is estimated to be 78 million tonnes and 81 million tonnes respectively. Limestone in Assam is of high quality. The Bokajan Cement Factory is based on the limestone reserve of Koliajan.

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Other Minerals:

There are also some other mineral resources available in Assam. Among the main natural resources are Fire Clay, Kaoline, Iron Ore, Fullers Earth, Feldspar, etc.

Assam is very rich with its deposit of some of the basic mineral resources which will provide scope for industrialisation through proper utilisation.

Coal, petroleum & natural gas, limestone and minor minerals are the chief mineral resources of the State.

Coal occurs in United Mikirs, North Cachar Hills, Sivasagar and Lakhimpur districts. Coal extracted from the State is friable and contains high sulphur.

Petroleum & natural gas occurs in Digboi oilfields, Lakhimpur district and Moran and Rudrasagar oilfields in Sivasagar district located in Assam Arakan Fold Belt (AAFB), Upper Assam and Assam basins.

Limestone occurs in Karbi Anglong, North Cachar Hills and Nagaon districts.

Besides, china clay occurs in Karbi Anglong and Lakhimpur districts;

Fireclay in Dibrugarh, Karbi Anglong, North Cachar Hills and North Lakhimpur districts; fuller’s earth in Nalbari district;

Granite in Goalpara, Kamrup and Karbi Anglong districts, iron ore (hematite) in Kokrajhar district;

Iron ore (magnetite) in Dhubri, Goalpara & Kokrajhar districts;

quartz/silica sand in Nagaon district, and

Sillimanite in Karbi Anglong & Nagaon districts

Forest Resources

Forestry represents the second-largest land use in India after agriculture. The forest resources in Assam play a crucial role in meeting a wide variety of needs for millions. A vast area of forest land of Assam has already been transformed into barren and unproductive wastelands.

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Forest contributes a lot to the GDP of Assam. Assam has its rich potential for the development of forests. The upper Brahmaputra valley along with two hill districts is covered by evergreen forests and the lower Brahmaputra valley is covered by tropical deciduous forests.

The state is famous for its tea gardens and one horned Rhinoceros. Topographically the state can be divided in to three parts viz the Brahmaputra valley, the Surma valley and the mountainous Assam Ranges. The state has subtropical climate with temperature ranging from 5°C to 32°C and mean annual rainfall varying from 1.500 mm to 3,750 mm.

The population of the state is 31.17 million (Census 2011). The rural and urban population accounts for 85.92% and 14.08% respectively.

The total area covered by forest in Assam is 30,807 sq km which is about 39.2 per cent of the total geographical area of the State. The reserved forests are covers 22 per cent of the total geographical area of the state. Assam, in total, has 7 National Parks and 18 Wildlife Sanctuaries.

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The forests in Assam contributes to its economy in many ways. Forest provides timber like Sal, Bansam, Teak, Sishu, Gamari, etc. These are very valuable for

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furniture making and construction work and thus provides excellent employment opportunities to thousands engaged in the Furniture Industry.

Forests in Assam provides raw materials for various industries like the plywood industry, match industry, paper and paper pulp industry, etc. Forests also provide fuel for household and other amenities, which is comparatively cheaper.

Apart from these, forests in Assam also helps in preserving its rich bio- diversity. Forests in Assam are home to many endangered species like the one-horned rhino, elephant, tiger, deer, rare birds, etc. The density of the tiger population in the Kaziranga National Park is the highest in the country.

The forests also generate revenues from tourism. Every year, millions of tourists from various places in India and from abroad visit the National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries, generating a handsome amount of revenue for the state.

Medicinal herbs and plants

With its vast hills and forests, Assam is the home to a variety of medicinal herbs and plants such as eg. Sarpagandha (rauvolfia serpentine Benth.ex.Kur), Pippali (Piper longam Linn), Amlakhi (Emblica Officinalis Gaertn), Hilikha (Terinalia Chebula Retz.), Bhomora (Terminalia belerica), Arjuna (Terminalia arjuna Wight & Arn.).

About 300 types of medicinal herbs and plants are known to exist in abundance in the state with the Brahmaputra valley itself having 150 varieties of herbs and plants of commercial value. It is estimated that only about 5-10% of the plants and herbs are currently utilised and the rest hold a vast potential.

Agriculture

An agrarian economy since time immemorial, about 77% of Assam’s workforce is engaged agriculture and allied activities contributing roughly 40% to the state’s GDP. Roughly 40% of the total area is cultivated.

Exotics

Assam Lemon: An unique product of Assam with a high percentage of Vitamin C (10 mg.) besides Vitamin B (0.02 mg.), Niacin (0.1) per 100 gm. Extractable oil content of the peel is around 0.8% and can be used in the cosmetic industry.

Hatkora: An exclusive export item belonging to the citrus family. Peel is used for tenderizing meat and enhancing flavour in culinary dishes.

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Orchids: Of the 925 varieties available in India, over 600 can be grown in Assam. Around 200 varieties are unique to this region of which 60% are ornamental in nature.

Aromatic Rice (Joha Rice): Quality comparable with any popular aromatic rice in the world.

Bhut Jalakia (Capsicum Chinensis Jacq.): Hottest chilli on earth with Scovelli Heat Unit (SHG) of 10,41,047.

Sericulture

The climate and general environment of Assam is well suited to sericulture. Traditional varieties of silk cultured include eri, muga and mulberry. The muga silk, known for its fine sheen and golden colour is used by the local silk weaving industry and this has contributed to the development of the muga culture in the State. There are vast opportunities in silk processing and spinning units.

Horticulture & Spices

The agro-climatic conditions favors cultivation of wide range of horticultural crops including plantation crops and various fruits and vegetables, flowers, spices, medicinal & aromatic plants, nut crops and tuber crops. Most horticulture products are organic as the use of Chemical Fertilizers is very low with the majority of the farmers still sticking to traditional organic farming methods.

Assam has over 600 varieties of Orchids. Around 200 varieties are unique to this region of which 60% are ornamental in nature. Assam also has a vast array of aromatic plants. At present most of the oils extracted are sold in crude form. Some of the plants are Citronella (Cymbopogan flexuosus Steud Wats), Lemon Grass, Patchouli (Pogostemon cabiln Benth.), Agar (Aquilaria agallocha Roxb.), etc.

Recorded Forest Area:

The recorded forest area of Assam is 26,832 sq km accounting for 34.21% of its geographical area. According to their legal status, Reserved Forests constitute 66.58% and Unclassed Forests 33.42% of the total forest area.

Protected Areas:

The protected area network of Assam includes 7 National Parks and 18 wildlife sanctuaries covering an area of 0.40 million ha constituting 4.98% of the geographical area. The state has three Tiger Reserves, namely Kaziranga, Manas and Nameri. Kaziranga National Park and Manas Wildlife Sanctuary are in the list of World Heritage sites.

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Forest Cover in Different Forest Types

Forest type mapping using satellite data has been undertaken by the Forest Survey of India with reference to Champion and Seth Classification. As per this assessment, the state has 18 forest types belonging to five forest type groups viz Tropical Wet Evergreen, Tropical Semi Evergreen, Tropical Moist Deciduous, Tropical Dry Deciduous and Sub Tropical Pine Forests.

Forest and Tree Cover

The estimated tree cover in the state is 1,564 sq km which is 1.99% of geographical area of the state. Forest cover in the state is 27,673 sq km that is 35.28% of the geographical area of the state. Thus the Forest and tree cover in the state is 29,237 sq km which is 37.27% of the geographical area. Source: India State of Forest Report 2011, Forest Survey of India.

Water Resources

Assam is rich in water resources. Apart from fulfilling the humans, animals and plants needs, water is also required in agricultural development, industry, animal husbandry and overall economic development.

Water available in the state can be classified as surface water and groundwater. Both surface water and groundwater is obtained from rainfall. Assam is famous for heavy rainfall. It experiences predominant influence of the south-west tropical monsoon which reigns from April to October with occasional winter shower. The average annual rainfall in the State varies from 1780 mm to 3050 mm.

Another important source of surface water in Assam is the major rivers of the state. The Brahmaputra is the major river of the state which flows through all the plain districts except in Cachar. Another major river, Barak, is flowing through the undivided Cachar district of Assam.

The groundwater potential in Assam is also quite high. Out of the total area worthy of groundwater exploration, nearly two-thirds of this potential has already been covered. There are about 16 billion cubic metres of groundwater available for exploitation but the water potential is not utilized for providing irrigation facilities. Moreover, there is a scarcity of potable drinking water in various parts of the State.

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Other Resources

These include the Human Resource, Live Stock Resource and Fishery Resource. Human Resource means the population of an area. Assam has a total population of 3,12,05,576 (2011 census). Assam’s land area constitutes 2.4% of the total land area of the country and it provides shelter to 2.64% of the country’s population. Out of the total population of Assam, 14.1% of people live in urban areas of the State.

Energy/Oil/Gas Based industry

Assam has over 1.3 billion tonnes of proven crude oil and 156 billion cu. mt of natural gas reserves. Superior quality natural gas available at an attractive price.

Assam accounts for about 15% of India’s crude output. The wells at Digboi, Duliajan, Sivasagar etc. also produce Natural gas accounting to about 50% of India’s total onshore production.

The refineries have the following capacities:

Digboi Refinery (Capacity – 0.65 MMTPA)

Guwahati Refinery (Capacity – 1.00 MMTPA)

Numaligarh Refinery (Capacity – 3.00 MMTPA)

Bongaigaon Refinery & Petrochemicals Ltd. (Capacity -2.35 MMTPA)

The Assam Gas Cracker Plant is coming up. The HDPE/LLDPE is 220,000 TPA, Polypropelene is 60,000 TPA. In the last 4 years or so, private sector/JV companies have made about 32 significant hydrocarbon discoveries.

Climate of Assam

The climate of Assam is typically ‘tropical monsoon rainfall’ type, with high levels of humidity and heavy rainfall. A moderate climate all throughout the year, with warm summers and mild winters.

Climatic variations can be seen regionally. While the plains of Assam have a tropical climate with high humidity, the hills have a sub-alpine type of climate.

The climate of Assam is characterised by alternate cool and warm periods with a highly humidity, especially from May to November. Between March and May at the time when precipitation in Northern India is at the minimum, Assam gets some amount of rainfall from the Norwesters which keep the temperature low in the season of spring.

In the plains of Assam, the maximum temperature does not go beyond 900F.or 320C and in winter the plains of Assam have a minimum temperature of about 80C. The climate of the plains and the sub-montane region becomes unpleasant, especially in the summer season. It happens to be so because of the extreme humidity which comes with the monsoon.

There are four distinct seasons in Assam – summer, monsoon, autumn and winter.

Summers

The summer season in Assam starts from the month of March and extends till the end of June. The season is characterized by extreme humidity and frequent showers.

The average temperature during this time of the year is between 35 and 38 degree Celsius. In fact, the mercury level never rises more than 38 degrees, even in the hottest month of the year.

Monsoons

This season brings relief from the scorching heat of the summers. The neighboring areas of Cherapunji and Mawsynram have the highest rainfall in the world. The average annual rainfall in the state is around 70 inches in the west and around 120 inches in the east.

In the afternoons, thunderstorms known as Bordoicila are very common. The season covers the entire state with a green blanket.

Winters

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The winter season in Assam is basically characterized by scanty rainfall and misty mornings and afternoons. It starts in November and continues till the month of February.

The mercury reading at this time of the year is around 6 to 8 degree Celsius or 43-46 degree Fahrenheit.

Spring & Autumn

In Assam, spring (March-April) and autumn (September-October) present pleasant seasons, with moderate temperature and rainfall. These are amongst the popular months for tourist rush.

RAINFALL

Assam receives typical monsoon rains. The south-west monsoon rains starts from the third week of June and they continue up to the middle of September. The State receives during this period about 180 cm of rainfall on the average.

This constitutes about 80% of the average rainfall of the State while the remaining 20% come in the form of occasional rains in January (as a result of the extension of the westerlies that come to the north-western India causing rainfall in Panjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh and snowfall in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal and the Himalayan region and in March-April (nor’westers or Bordoichila).

There is however, religion variation in the rainfall pattern. It is found that as the Maghalaya Plateau stands on the way of the main branch of the rain – bearing south-west monsoon winds, the southern portion of the Brahmaputra Plains skirting the Plateau fall in the rainshadow zone.

Hence the south-eastern part of Kamrup district from Guwahati eastward. Southern part of Nagaon district .northern part of Hamren subdivision and the eastern foothills of Karbi -Rengma hills receive less rainfall than the other parts of the Brahmaputra Plains.

In fact, the Lanka-Lumding receives hardly 100 cm of average annual rainfall. Similarly, the Diphu-Nambar region also receives a small quantity of rain. In other parts of the Bhrahmaputra Plains, rainfall increases as one goes to the east or north or west.

The heaviest rainfall exceeding 200 cm is received in Tinsukia, Dibrugarh, Dhemaji and Lakhimpur districts and along the Himalayan foothill region. The

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average annual rainfall is around 200cm all over the middle part of the Brahmaputra Valley from the east to the west.

While the western part Of Karbi Anglong receives 200cm of average annual rainfall. North Cachar Hills and the Barak plains receive more than 200cm.

Natural Vegetation, Forests, Wildlife and Bio-diversity

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms at all levels of organization, from gene through species to higher taxonomic forms and also includes the variety of ecosystems and habitats as well the processes occurring therein. Biodiversity is fundamental to the fulfillment of human needs – a biodiversity rich region offers wide options and opportunities for sustaining human welfare including adoption to changes.

India is one of the 17 Mega biodiverse countries in the world and accounts for 7-8 % of the recorded species. The State of Assam is a constituent unit of the Eastern Himalayan Biodiversity Region; one of the two biodiversity “Hot Spots” in the country.

The climatic condition and wide variety in physical features witnessed in Assam have resulted in a diversity of ecological habitats such as forests, grasslands ,wetlands, which harbour and sustain wide ranging floral and faunal species placing

The Bio-spectrum

The climatic conditions cause prevalence of not and highly humid weather in this part of country and coupled with heterogenic physiography make possible luxuriant growth of a number of plant communities imparting Assam a distinct identity phyto-geographically, many a species are endemic to this region and it is also the center of origin for commercially important plants including Banana, Citrus, Mango, Zizyphus, and Tea.

The array of floristic richness has prompted many a scholars to describe Assam as the “Biological Gateway” of North East. The eminent Plant Taxonomist and Plant Geographer Armen L. Takhtajan observed, “Cradle of flowering plants lies in between Assam and Fiji”.

Diverse Plant Communities

In the “Revised Survey of Forest Types in India”, Champion and Seth categorized as many as fifty one different forest types/ sub types for this region. But, the species

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diversity is so spectacular that it becomes often difficult to clearly identify separate riche to existing plant formations. However, broadly speaking the forest in Assam can be described into following types/ sub types.

Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests.

Tropical Semi Evergreen Forests.

Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests.

Co-ordinate the activities of the Biodiversity Management Committees;

Sub-tropical Broadleaf Hill Forests.

Sub-tropical Pine Forests.

Littoral and Swamp Forests.

Grassland and Savannahs.

Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests are found in the districts of Golaghat, Jorhat, Sibsagar, Tinsukia, Dibrugarh and in a narrow stretch in Lakhimpur and Dhemaji districts along foot hills. These forests also occur in the southern part of the State at lower elevations in Borail Range, and in Loharbund, Sonai, Longai and Dholia Reserve Forests in Cachar and Karimganj Districts.

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Hollong (Dipterocarpus macrocarpus), the tallest tree of Assam and also the “State Tree” is the most predominant constituent of these forests. The associated species are Borpat, Jutuli, Sam, Dewa sam, Nahar, Teeta chap, Bhelu, Mekai etc.

Forests in Southern Assam have, however, Dipterocarpus terbinatus(Garjan) in association with Mesua ferrea (Nahar), Mesua floribunda (Bolong), Michelia glabra (Champ), Palaquium polyanthum (Kathalua) etc.

Tropical Semi Evergreen Forests occur mostly in Hallangapar, Abhoypur, Dilli, Dhansiri, Kholahat, Mayong, Garbhanga, Rani, Mahamaya, Guma, Haltugaon, Kachugaon, Gali, Pobha, Ranga, Kakoi, Nauduar, Batasipur, Dohalia, Singla, Longai, Bhuban Pahar, Sonai, Barak and Inner Line Reserve Forests along Northern and Southern parts of the State.

These forests have mostly medium size trees with few large trees. Shrubs, lianas, climbers, orchids and ferns grow copiously. At the fringe bamboos and canes occupy the space.

Moist Deciduous Forests can further be described as Sal Forests and Mixed Deciduous Forests. Sal Forests occupy considerable forest area in the Central and Lower parts of the State in the Districts of Nagaon, Morigaon, Kamrup, parts of Nalbari and Barpeta, Darrang, Dhubri, Kokrajhar and Goalpara.

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In these forests, Sal grows in association with Lagerstroemia species (Jarul, Ajar), Schima Wallichii (Ghugra), Stereospermum personatum (Paruli), Adina cordifolia (Haldu), Artocarpus species (Sam), Ficus species (Bor, Dimoru, Dhupbor, Bot, Athabor, tengabor, Lotadioru, Khongaldimoru), Bischofia javanica (Uriam), Gmelina arborea (Gomari), Michelia champaca(Teeta champa), Terminalia species (Hilikha, Bhomora, Bohera). Toona ciliate (Poma) etc.

Moist Deciduous Mixed Forests occur at the foot of hills in Lakhimpur, Dhemaji, Karbi-Angong and N. C. Hills districts. Trees are mostly deciduous with Sprinkling of few evergreen and semi-evergreen species. Important plant species growing in these forests include Adina cordifolia9 Haldu), Albizia species (Siris, Kolasiris, Koroi, Sau) Alstonia scholaris (Satiana), Artocarpus chama (Sam), Careya arborea(Kumbhi), Dalbergia species (Sissoo, Medelua), Ficus species (Bot, Bor, Dimoru), Lagerstroemia species (Jarul, Ajar), Mallotu species (Senduri, Joral, Dudhloti) etc.

These forest harbour rich diversity of shrubby and herbaceous ground vegetation. Some of the Reserve Forests also have teak plantations.

Bordering Moist Deciduous Forests in rain shadow areas are found forests which has been referred to as “Dry Forests” by Kanjilal. This type of forests are encountered in the Lumding, Langting, Mailongdisa Reserve Forests. A typical example is the Umananda Island in the middle of Brahmaputra North of Guwahati.

Sub-tropical Broad Leaf Hills forests and Sub-tropical Pine forests occur in the districts of Karbi-Anglong and N. C. Hills. Species commonly occurring are Alseodaphne petiolaris (Ban-hanwalu), Antidesma bunius, Betula alnoides, Cleidon speciflorum etc. Higher up pure stands of Pinus kesiya(Khasi-pine) are found particularly in the Hamren sub-division in Karbi-Anglong district.

Grass land and Savannahs are grass dominated biomes and form the major part of vegetation in Kaziranga National Park, Pobitora, Orang, Sonai-Rupai, Laokhowa, Barnadi, Burachapori, Dibru-Saikhowa Wildlife Sanctuaries and some part in Manas National Park.

Grasslands support important wildlife population in Assam. Important grasses are Apluda mutica, Phragmatis karka, Sclerostachya fusca, Saccharum species etc. These species grow gregariously at the onset of monsoon and grow even upto 6 meters tall.

Littoral and Swamp forests have almost lost their identity because of biotic pressure on land. Presently sedges and grasses form the largest component of vegetation. Important species include Ageratum conyzoides, Alocasia species, Alpinia species., Amaranthus species., Bacopa species., Blumea species., Bombax species., Crotolaria species. etc.

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The orchids of Assam

In Assam as many as 293 species of Orchids are reported which represent 44.39% of North.East species and 24.42% of species occurring in India.Orchids as a group of flowering plants exhibit wide range of habits and have specific macro climatic requirements for their growth, development and regeneration. Assam orchids show all the habits and growth forms found in Orchidaceous taxa. Mostly they are epiphytes. Goodyera procera and Spiranthis sinesis are adapted to aquatic habitant whereas Vanilla pilifera and Galeola altissima are climbers.

Orchids grow to their magnificent best in the Evergreen and Semi- Evergreen forest and to some extent in Moist Deciduous forests.

Bamboos in Assam

Bamboos have gained considerable importance in the socio-economic life of people in Assam for the variety of uses they cater to. Altogether 38 naturally growing species of bamboo are recorded in Assam of which Bamboosa masrtersei is restricted in distribution to Dibrugarh district. Bamboosa cacharensis, Dinochlora compactiflora, D.india are restricted to Barak Valley.

Chimnobabusa griffithiana and Oxetenanthera parviflora are restricted in distribution to N.C.Hills. Bambusa rangaensis grows wild in the Ranga R.F. of Lakhimpur district. Bamboosua vulgaris is the introduced species cultivated throughout Assam as ornamental plant. Bambusa jaintiana and Melocanna arundiana are the species reported only from Assam.

There are no exclusive bamboo forest in the plains of Assam, bamboo grooves are found mostly along the N.C Hills and Karbi Aneage of Reserve Forests. But pure bamboo forests occur in Chimnobambusa griffithiana.

Bamboo is cultivated widely in Assam and every household grows bamboo in its bari land. Commonly cultivated species are Bambusa balcooa (Bhaluka bamboo), Bambusa tulda (Jati bamboo), Malocanna bacciferra (Muli bamboo), Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (Koko bamboo) and Dendrocalamus giganteus (Mokalm bamboo).

Cane Diversity

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14 species of cane grow in cane brakes in forests of Assam. Calamus flagellum, Calamus floribunadus, Calamus latifolius are found widely distributed throughout Assam. Plectomia assamica and Plectomia bractealis are endemic species.

Medicinal Plant diversity

Assam is home to a good number of plants having medicinal uses in Aurvedic, Unani, Homeopathic and even modern medical practices. Quite a few of them are used by traditional village practitioners called Bej and people respond favourably to these traditional practitioners particularly in rural areas.

Altogether, 952 plants species have been identified which have uses in medical practices in some form or other. Asparagus racemosa (Satmul), Curcuma aromatica (Ban-haldi), Emblica officinalis (Bel), Terminalia species (Hilikha, Bahera), Eugenia jambolana(Loha-jam), Garcina species (Thekera), Holarrhina antidysentrica (Dudhkuri), Hydnocarpus kurzii (Chalmugra), Litsea cubeba (Mejankuri), Ocimum species. (Tulsi), Phlogocanthus thyrsiflorus (Titaphul), Piper longum (Pipoli), Saraca indica (Asoka), Wedelia calandulacea (Mahabhringraj), Zinziber officinalis (Ada) are some of the most commonly used plants in treatment of various aliments. But the list is not exhaustive.

Wetlands and Aquatic Plant Diversity

Assam has more fresh water wetlands then any other state in the North Eastern Region. The two major drainage systems of Assam-the Brahmaputra and the Barak and in the flood plains of these river systems exist patches of marshy depressions and swamps as well as perennial water bodies of varying shape, size and depth called locally as beels, haors, jalah, doloni, hola, pitoni etc. Man made tanks like Joysagar, Sibsagar, Dighalipukhuri, Jorpukhuri, Hazarapukhuri, Rajhuwa Borpukhuri etc. were also dug by ancient Rulers of Assam.

There are an estimated 3513 beels and hoars, 1,85,623 ponds and tanks and one reservoir in Assam. Deepor beel near Guwahati is a Ramsar site. Besides Deepor beel and some others mentioned above wetlands of importantce are Chandubi, Rata, Sohola, Taralipather, Phokolai, Mer, Sonbeel, Jamjing, Sagunpara, Motapung, Sarlane, Sareswar, Roumari, Khalihamari, Goranga, Sapekhati, Koladuar etc.

The aquatic plants species of Assam belongs to diverse habits and have distinctive characteristics. More than 100 such aquatic species have been identified and they can be described into following broad categories.

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Free floating hydrophytes: Eichhornia cressipes, Pistia stratioles, Lemna mino etc.

Suspended submersed hydrophytes: Ceratophyllum demersum, Utricularia gibba etc.

Anchored submerged hydrophytes: Hydrilla, Potomogeton, vallisnaria etc.

Anchored hydrophytes with floating leaves: Nelumbo, Euryle etc.

Anchored hydrophytes with floating shoots: Ludwigia, Ipomea etc.

Emergent amphibious hydrophytes: Sagittaria, Scrirpus.

Wetland hydrophytes: Cyperus, Hygrophylla etc.

Endemic Flora

Endemic flora are plants which occur in a restricted area. Altogether 165 species of plants have been recorded which are restricted in distribution to certain pockets in Assam, though some of them show extended destruction in the N.E. Region and elsewhere in India. However about 100 such species have distribution restricted to Assam only. These include trees e.g. Accacia gageana, Adiantum assamicum, Alseodaphne andersonii, Alseodaphane khasyana, Angiopteris assamica, Cedrela fabrifuga, Cinnamomum cacharensis, Coelogyne assamica, Combretum wallichii, Dinochloa indica, Diospyros cacharensis, Dipterocarpus mannii, Eugenia cyanophylla, bamboos e.g. Bambusa cacharensis, Bambusa mastersii, Chimnobambusa griffitheana, orchids e.g. Bulbophyllum elassonotum, Bulbophyllum vireus, Dendrobium assmicum etc.

Rare and Endangered Species

From all available account following categories of threatened plants recognized by the IUCN have been reported from Assam.

Extinct: Bambusa mastersii, Cleisostoma arietinum, Cyperus corymbosus, Dendrobium assamicum, Dendrobium aurantiacum, Hetaeria anomala, Liparis stachyurus and Sapria himalayana. Paphiopedilum specerianum is reported to be extinct in wild.

Besides the above; 284 species of plants are observed to be critically endangered, 149 species as endangered, 58 species as vulnerable, 13 species as near threatened.

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The Rich Faunal Diversity

Assam is part of the transitional zone between the Indian, Indo- Malayan and Indo-Chinese Biographical regions. Favourable climate, topographic and edaphic factors support luxuriant growth of diverse plant communities and create varied habitats.

The Wet Evergreen, Semi-Evergreen, Moist Deciduous, Wet Savannah and riparian forest as well as extensive network of river systems and swamps, marshes and wetlands provide ideal conditions and suitable habitat for sustenance of wide variety of fauna be it mammals, primates, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, mollusks, birds, butterflies, moths etc. With existence of one of the most diverse faunal population; Assam provides the gateway for spread of both oriental and Palaearctic fauna to other parts of the country.

Mammalian Diversity

Assam forms the western most boundary for the Indo-Chinese species including primates and the easternmost limit of several peninsular mammalian fauna. The distributional extent of several Indian species including clawless otter, the spotted deer, the swamp deer, the stone marlin, the hispid hare, the great Indian one horned rhinoceros, the pigmy hog etc. have terminated in Assam plains.

The distributional range of several Indo-Chinese fauna gets its sustenance from this region. Mention can be made of its sustenance from this region. Mention can be made of such species like clouded leopard, the marbled cat, the golden cat, the spotted linsang, the large Indian civet, the binturong, the crab eating mongoose, the ferret badger, the hog badger, the hoary bamboo rat, the bay bamboo rat etc.

Assam is home to all the primate species found in the North Eastern region. Besides, many of the relict mammalian fauna of peninsular India particularly those occurring in the Western Ghats have close relationship with Assam and N.E region and therefore undoubtedly Assam holds a key place in the evolutionary process of divergence of mammalian fauna in India.

Assam’s mammalian diversity is represented by 193 species which are widely distributed in this region. But of late some of the species like one horned rhinoceros, water buffalo, pigmy hog, swamp deer, golden langur, hoolock gibbon have their distribution limited to isolated pockets and protected areas.

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Primate Diversity

Out of 15 Indian primate species 9 are found in Assam. Hoolock gibbon is the only ape found in India. The other primate species are golden langur, capped monkey, rhesus macaque, pigtail macaque, stump tailed macaque, Assamese macaque, and slow Lorries.

Golden langur or “Sonali Bandar” as it is known locally is confined between Sankosh river in the west; Manas in the east; Brhmaputra in the south and mountains in Bhutan in the north. Pigtail macaque and stumped tailed macaque locally known as Gahorinejia Bandar and “Senduiria Bandar” respectively are distributed in the Eastern, central and southern part of the state. Rhesus macaque, capped monkey and Assamese macaque are more or less distributed through the State. Assamese macaque and Rhesus monkeys are also found in villages and in urban areas.

Most of the primates are predominately arborcal in nature but Rhesus monkey, Assamese macaque and stump tailed macaque are partly terrestrial also.

Slow Lorries is the only prosimian found in Assam and the N.E. region. Locally known as “Lajuki Bandar” they are solitary animals and obligate canopy dwellers.

Because of the habitant loss and fragmentation the primates are facing serious threat to their survival.

Avian Diversity

Assam is one of the “endemic bird areas” in the world. With 950 bird species the State is home to 53.5% of the bird species found in the Indian Sub-Continent, 17 species of birds are endemic to Assam and include Manipur Bush Quail, Marsh Babbler, Snowy throated Babbler, Tawny breasted Wren Babbler, Blyth’s Tragopan,

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Beautiful Sibia, Grey sibia, Black breasted Parrotbill, Chestrunt breasted partridge, Rusty breasted shortwig etc.

45 species of birds from Assam find mention in the Indian Red Data Book and include white winged wood duck, Blyth’s Tragopan, Greater Adjutant, lesser Adjutant, Leser whitefronted Goose, Merbled Teal, Beer’s Pochard, Palla’s Sea Eagle, Greater spotted Eagle, Green Peafowl, White rumped vulture, longbilled vulture etc.

Reptilian Diversity:

Assam’s varied physiography and habitant conditions support a rich variety of reptilian population. Gangetic gharial, 19 species of tortoises and 77 species of snakes and lizards are found in the state.

Amphibian Diversity:

Assam and other parts of the N.E. region have 70 species of Amphibions reported from the region.. Gangenophis fulleri and Ichthyphis garoensis are endemic to Assam.

Fish Diversity:

The Brahmaputra and Barak river system along with their tributaries and flood plain wetlands locally known as beels provide very condusive habitant for an array of fish species, Assam and other parts of N.E. region is recognized as one of the hot spots of fresh water fish biodiversity. 197 food, sports and ornamental fish species are reported from the region of which 185 are reported from Assam.

The important ornamental fish species are colisa, Nemacheilus, Danio, Botia and Chaca. Commercially important fish species include, Rohu, Ktla, Pabha,Pabda Chital, Magur, Singi, Sol, etc. Over exploitation is posing serious threats to fish diversity and 25 species are identified as threatened.

Molluscan Diversity:

The river systems and extensive flood plains also harbour fresh water mollusks. So far 39 species of freshwater snails have been reported from Assam of which 10 species are used as food.

Butterfly Diversity:

These are amongst most beautiful creatures on earth. Around 1500 species of butterflies are reported from India of which nearly half are reported from Assam and N.E. India. The Swallowtail butterflies occupy an important place and the IUCN has identified the entire N.E. Region as Swallowtail rich zone under “Swallowtail Conservation Action Plan”.

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Butterflies play an important role in pollination of plants and besides being important aesthetically they play important role in biodiversity conservation.

Diversity of Moths:

Moths are also beautiful creatures and in Assam about 387 species of moths are reported. Most of the moth species are distributed throughout the State.

Protected area of Assam

Assam protected areas includes Seven national parks (2.51% of Assam’s area), 16 wildlife sanctuaries (1.88% of Assam’s area), and two proposed wildlife sanctuaries.

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7 NATIONAL PARKS IN ASSAM

6th: Raimona National Park (Notified in 2021)

7th: Dihing Patkai National Park (Notified in June 2021)

The Protected Area Network in Assam occupies 3925-sq. km. area and constitute about 5% of the State’s geographical area.

Kaziranga National Park needs no introduction and is virtually home to great

Indian one horned rhinoceros. Besides, wild buffaloes, swamp deer, hog deer, sambar, elephant, tiger and leopard are also found in KNP.

The faunal population of KNP has 35 species of mammals, 42 species of fishes, and 254 species of birds including Bengal florican. Kaziranga National Park in also a “World heritage site” and a” Tiger reserve”.

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Manas National Park is also a Biosphere Reserve and forms a contiguous linear belt along the foot of Himalayas. The floral diversity includes 543 plant species. The faunal diversity is represented by 60 mammalian species, 42 species of reptiles, 7 species of amphibians, 5 fish species, 103 invertebrate species and 327 species of birds. Translcation of rhinos from Pobitora and Manas is being undertaken in stages to reintroduce rhinos in Manas.

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Dibru-Saikhowa Biosphere Reserve includes Dibru- Saikhowa wild life Sanctuary and biogeographically exhibits the properties of both the Indian and Malayan sub- regions. It consists of a number of “ecotones” between floral communities of riparian and grassland habitats as well as deciduous forest and wet evergreen forest types. This biosphere reserve is home to many important faunal species including white wing wood duck, hoolock gibbon, wild buffalo, several species of turtles, Gangetic dolphin, golden mahaseer etc. The documented animal population includes 3 species of amphibians, 22 species of reptiles, 25 species of birds, 25 species of mammals, 62 species of fishes etc. This biosphere reserve is also home to a number of feral horses.

Raimona is home to elephants, tigers, golden langurs, clouded leopard, wild buffalo, spotted deer, over 150 species of butterflies, 170 species of birds including the white bellied heron and nearly 380 species of plants.

The Dihing Patkai national park (Falling in Tinsukia and Dibrugarh districts in upper Assam) will be spread over 234 sq km. Known earlier as the Dihing Patkai rain forest, it used to have an area of 111 sq km and was considered the “last remaining stretches” of the Assam Valley tropical wet evergreen forests. Till date, 47 mammal species including tiger, 47 reptile species and 310 species of butterflies have been recorded in Dihing Patkai.

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Proposed Wildlife Sanctuaries in Assam

North Karbi Anglong Wildlife Sanctuary – 96 sq km
Bordoibam Bilmukh Bird Wildlife Sanctuary – 11.25 sq km

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River system of Assam and water resources

The State of Assam comprised of two valleys namely the Brahmaputra and Barak Valley and it is situated in between 90° to 96° North Latitude and 24° to 28° East Longitude. The geographical area of Assam is 78,438.00 Sq. Km out of which 56,194.00 Sq. Km and 22,244.00 Sq. Km fall under the Brahmaputra and Barak Valley including 2 (Two) hill districts respectively.

The flood prone area of the state is 31,500.00 Sq Km as assessed by the Rastriya Barh Ayog which is about 39.58 % of the total land area of Assam. This is about 9.40% of total flood prone area of the whole country. The flood prone area of the country as a whole stands at about 10.2 % of the total area of the country, but flood prone area of Assam is 39.58 % of the area of the state. It signifies that the flood prone area of Assam is four times the national mark of the flood prone area of the country. Records show that average annual area affected by flood is 9.31 Lakh Hectares. The flood protected area of the state is 16500.00 Sq. Km till date.

The severity of flood problem of the state has been further aggravated by the acuteness of erosion on both banks of river Brahmaputra and its tributaries. Study reveals that an area of 4.27 Lakh Hectare of the state has been eroded by the rivers since 1950, which is 7.40 % of area of the state. The average annual rate of erosion is 8000.00 Ha. The world’s largest river island Majuli is also under the grip of erosion by river Brahmaputra and about 60% of its original area has already been engulfed by the river.

Brahmaputra River System

The Brahmaputra Valley has an average width of about 80 Km. The main river of the valley, Brahmaputra is one of the largest rivers in the world and rank fifth with respect to its average discharge. The river originates from the Kailash ranges of Himalayas at an elevation of 5300 M. After flowing through Tibet it enters India through Arunachal Pradesh and flows through Assam and Bangladesh before it joins Bay of Bengal.

The catchments area of Brahmaputra in Tibet is 2, 93,000 Sq. Km; in India and Bhutan is 2,40,000 Sq. Km and in Bangladesh is 47,000 Sq. Km. The Brahmaputra basin extends over an area of 5,80,000 Sq. Km up to its confluence within Bangladesh.

The average width of Brahmaputra is 5.46 Km. The maximum discharge of Brahmaputra at Pandu near Guwahati was recorded as 72,779 cumec on 23.08.62 and minimum discharge was recorded as 1757 cumec on 22.02.63. The average annual discharge is about 20,000 cumec and average dry season discharge is 4,420 cumec.

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The river slope is very steep till it enters India. A drop of about 4800 M is achieved in a length at about 1700 Km in China (Tibet). This average slope of about 2.82 m/Km gets reduced to about 0.1m/Km in Assam valley. Due to this sudden flattening of river slope, the river becomes braided in nature in the Assam valley. During its course in Assam valley from Kobo to Dhubri the river is joined by about 20 (twenty) important tributaries on its North bank and 13 (thirteen) on its South bank. Joining of these tributaries bringing high sediment load activates braiding.

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Brahmaputra sub-basin extends over an area of 580,000 sq.km lying in Tibet (China), Bhutan, India and Bangladesh. The drainage area lying in India is 194413 sq.km which is nearly 5.9% of the total geographical area of the country. It is bounded on the north by the Himalayas, on the east by the Patkari range of hills running along the Assam-Burma border, on the south by the Assam range of hills and on the west by the Himalayas and the ridge .separating it from Ganga sub-basin. The sub-basin lies in the States of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya, West Bengal and Sikkim. The State-wise distribution of drainage area is given below:

State Drainage area (sq.km)

Arunachal Pradesh

Assam

West Bengal

Meghalaya

Nagaland

Sikkim

Total 194,413

The most predominant soil type found in the sub-basin is the red loamy soil and alluvial soil. Other important soil types are sandy, loamy, clayey soils, their combinations and laterite soils. The culturable area of the sub-basin is about 12.15 M. ha which is 6.2% of the culturable area of the country.

All the tributaries of the valley area are rain fed and foam up with rain. The precipitation here is mainly due to South West monsoon. Heavy precipitation occurs here from May to September. All its tributaries experience number of flood waves as per rainfall in respective catchments. If the flood of the tributaries coincides with the flood of Brahmaputra, it causes severe problem and devastation.

Table: The average width of Brahmaputra in some places of Assam

S1.No. Name of places (in between) Average width (in km)

Between Dibrugarh and Neamati

Between Neamati and Tezpur

Between Tezpur and Guwahati

Between Guwahati and Manas confluence Between Manas confluence to Dhubri

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The characteristics of the north bank tributaries are different than that of the south bank tributaries, which may be summarized as below:

The North Bank Tributaries:

Have very steep slopes and shallow braided channels for a considerable distance from the foot hills and in some cases right up to the outfall.

Have boulder, pebble and coarse sandy beds and carry a heavy silt charge.

Generally have flashy floods.

The South bank Tributaries:

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Have comparatively flatter grades and deep meandering channels almost from the foot hills.

Have comparatively low silt charge. Besides these, there are several other small streams also which drain directly to the river.

Subansiri River

Subansiri River is also called as Gold River as it is famous for its gold dust.

It flows through the Lower Subansiri District in Arunachal Pradesh.

Subansari, a swift river offers excellent kayaking opportunities.

Kameng River

Kameng River in the eastern Himalayan mountains originates in the Tawang district

Flows through West Kameng District, Arunachal Pradesh, and Sonitpur District of Assam.

The Kameng forms the boundary between East Kameng District and West Kameng Districts.

The Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary and the Kaziranga National Park are located near the Kameng River.

Manas River

Manas River is a transboundary river in the Himalayan foothills between southern Bhutan and India.

The total length of the river is 376 km, flows through Bhutan for 272 km and then through Assam for 104 km before it joins the mighty Brahmaputra River at Jogighopa

The river valley has two major reserve forest areas, namely the Royal Manas National Park in Bhutan and the contiguous Manas Wildlife Sanctuary.

Sankosh River

It rises in northern Bhutan and empties into the Brahmaputra in the state of Assam

The upper catchment of the river is glaciated. The middle and the lower courses flow along V-shaped valleys that have been carved by running water.

The entire catchment of the river is covered with forests.

Teesta River

The river originates from Tso Lhamo lake in North Sikkim at an elevation of 5330 m in the Himalayas.

Rangeet River is the major tributary of the Teesta River. Rangeet river is the largest river in Sikkim. Rangeet river joins Teesta river at a place known as Tribeni.

The river then flows past the town of Rangpo where it forms the border between Sikkim and West Bengal up to Teesta Bazaar.

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The river flows through Jalpaiguri and then to Rangpur District of Bangladesh, before finally merging with the mighty Brahmaputra.

Dibang River

The river Dibang is one of the principal tributaries of the Brahmaputra river

Originating from the snow-covered southern flank of the Himalayas close to the Tibet border at an altitude of more than 5000 m.

It emerges from the hills to enter the plain area near Nizamghat in the Lower Dibang Valley district of Arunachal Pradesh

The Mishmi hills are found along the upper course of the Dibang River

Lohit River

The River Lohit originates in eastern Tibet.

The river flows through the Mishmi hills to meet the Siang at the head of Brahmaputra valley

The valley of Lohit is thickly forested, covered with alpine and sub-tropical vegetation

A large variety of medicinal plants are also found here.

Dhansiri River

. It is the main river of Golaghat District of Assam and Dimapur District of Nagaland

It originates from Nagaland

There are numerous perennially waterlogged swampy regions associated with this river.

Kopili River

Kopili River is an interstate river in Northeast India that flows through the states of Meghalaya and Assam and is the largest south bank tributary of the Brahmaputra in Assam.

Carissa Kopilii (Plant Species) is distributed sparsely along the Kopili riverbed. The plant is threatened by a hydroelectric project on the river and water turned acidic because of coal mining in Meghalaya upstream.

The meteorological conditions in catchments of Brahmaputra in Tibet and in India are different and lie in different climatic zones. The mean annual rainfall over the entire catchments including Tibet and Bhutan is about 2500 mm. The rainfall in Brahmaputra basin is mainly due to South-West monsoon and out of total annual rainfall, 85% occurs during the monsoon months from May to September. Besides the valley gets a good amount of rainfall in the month of April and May due to thunder storm activities which account for flood during heavy rain in June, when the soil is already saturated and river bank in full stage.

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Dams and Projects in Brahmaputra River :

1.Doyang Dam in Nagaland State

Karbi Langpi dam on Borpani river in assam

3.Khandong Dam on Kopili river in Meghalaya.

Kyrdemkuli Dam on Umtru river in Meghalaya
Nongkhyllem Dam in Meghalaya
Ranganadi Dam in Arunachal
Rangit Dam in Sikkim
Rangpo Dam in sikkim

9.Subansiri Lower dam in arunachal

10.Umiam Dam on Umiam river in Meghalaya

Umrong Dam in Assam

Barak River System

The Barak is the second largest river system in the North East India as well as in Assam. The Barak rises on the southern slope of the lofty Barail Range near the border of Manipur and Nagaland and forms a part of the northern boundary of the Manipur State with Nagaland where it is known as Kirong. From there it flows a westerly and southerly course to Tipaimukh, where it sharply turns to the north, and for a considerable distance, forms the boundary line between Cachar district of Assam and Manipur.

Thereafter, it turns westward at Jirimukh and runs through the Cachar plain sluggishly. Near Karimganj, it bifurcates into the northern branh of Surma and the southern branch of Kushiyara. The river with a total length of 900 km from source to mouth drains an area of 52,000 sq. km. In India, the river traverses a distance of 532 km upto the Indo-Bangla border.

The Barak valley has a geographical area of 6922.00 Sq. Km excluding 2(two) hill districts. The local rainfall run off of the valley along with that of adjacent hilly areas flows through river Barak and its various tributaries and is drained out to Bangladesh. The Katakhal, Jiri, Chiri, Modhura, Longai, Sonai, Rukni and Singla are the main tributaries of the valley. The tributaries are mainly rain fed and cause flood problems when precipitation occurs

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State Drainage Area (Sq. mtr.)

Meghalaya 10650

Manipur 9567

Mizoram 8866

Assam 7224

Tripura 4688

Nagaland 728

Total 41723

The Barak sub-basin drains areas in India, Bangladesh and Burma. The drainage area of the sut lying in India is 41723 sq.km which is nearly 1.38% of the total geographical area of the country. It is be on the north by the Barail range separating it from the Brahmaputra sub-basin, on the east by the Na Lushai hills and on the south and west by Bangladesh. The sub-basin lies in the States of Meghalaya. Manipur, Mizoram, Assam, Tripura and Nagaland. Assam, Tripura and Nagaland.

In Assam, the Barak has a total length of 225 km and it drains the southern part of the state which includes the districts of Cachar, Karimganj, Hailakandi and the southern part of the Noprth Cachar Hills. The valley has a width of 25-30 km and it covers an area of 6962 sq. km accounting for about 9% of the total geographical area of the state. The plain, usually known as Cachar Plain is a narrow, and slopes gently to the west.

Through the plain, the river flows sluggishly for a distance of 125 km and exhibits a highly meandering pattern. The important north bank tributaries of Barak river are Jiri, Siri, Madhura, Jatinga and Larang, while the important south bank tributaries include Sonai, Ghagra, katakhal, Dhaleswari, Singla and Longai.

There are two major physiographic regions in the sub-basin, namely, the hilly region and the plain plains are thickly populated and extensively cultivated. The predominant soil types found in the sub-basin are laterite and red and yellow soils. The culturable area in the sub-basin 0.893 M. ha which is only about 0.5% of the culturable area of the country

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Irrigation

Agriculture constitutes the largest share of water consumption amongst various uses followed by the domestic and industrial uses. The rate of groundwater extraction in the state has been increase by many folds in last decade of for irrigation through shallow tube wells.

Wetlands

Besides the river, another important source of surface water is the wetlands of the state. There are about 3513 numbers of wetlands of different size and shape in the state. The total area under different categories of wetland in Assam is about 1012.32 sq km during the pre monsoon season. It constitutes 1.29 percent of the total geographical area of the state.

Of the total wetlands, 1367 inland wetlands suffer due to the problem of invasion by aquatic weeds and need ameliorative steps for conservation. Out of this, 656 are swampy/marshy areas, 366 ox-bow lakes/cut-off meanders, 193 lakes/ponds, 133 water-logged, 13 tanks and 3 reservoirs. The wetlands of the state are facing serious threat from the human society. The large-scale encroachment, over fishing in wetlands, filing up of wetlands for other uses and dumping of wastes in the wetlands are some of the human activities causing serious damage to the wetland ecosystem.

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The valley of the river Brahmaputra with its innumerable fresh water lakes (locally called beel), or ox-bow lakes (era suti), marshy tracts and seasonally flooded plains and hundreds of riverine sandbars and islands was, till recently, an ideal wetland eco-system which contained specialised wetland animals like the fresh water dolphin, dugong and the great Indian one-horned rhino and reptiles like the crocodile, the winter monitor lizard and few species of turtles. All these creatures are either extinct or highly endangered at present.

The destruction of the Brahmaputra valley wetland system started with the arrival of the water hyacinth from Central America more than a century ago. Extensive growth of this fast growing weed can cut out sun light from the micro flora and also produces faster eutrophication by slowing down water current and depositing debris at the bottom.

The second phase of enhanced eutrophication took place with the raising of earthen bunds along the banks of almost the entire length of the river and many of its tributaries after the 1950 earthquake. These artificial levees cut off, to a great extent, the periodic flushing out of the wetlands by the monsoon flood.

The third and the final onslaught on the wetlands have taken place with the arrival of the human settlers in the sand bars and the minor riverine islands, mostly in the lower Assam.

Lakes/Ponds

In Assam, there are 690 lakes and ponds and covers an area of 15494.00 ha which constitutes 0.20 percent of the total geographical area of the state and 15.30 percent of the total area under wetlands. Majority of this type of wetlands have water with low turbidity.

Highest number of lakes / ponds are observed in Golaghat district (113 number) followed by Dhubri (73 number) and Nagaon (68 number) districts. But areawise, the highest area under this category is observed in Kamrup district (15705.00 ha) followed by Nagaon (2175.50 ha) and Dhubri (1816.50 ha) districts.

Some of the important wetlands under this category are Deepar beel in Kamrup district, Dhir beel in Dhubri district, Tamaranga beel and Dalani beel in Bongaigaon district.

Ox-bow Lakes / Cut-off Meanders

A total 861 number of ox-bow lakes/cut-off meanders are observed throughout the state of Assam, covering an area of 15460.60 ha which constitutes 0.20 percent of the total geographical area of the state and 15.27 percent of the total area under wetlands.

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The smallest of them measures 5.0 ha while the largest one has 582.50 ha of areal coverage. Majority of this type of wetlands have water with low turbidity. An analysis of aquatic vegetation in these ox-bow lakes / cut-off meanders indicates that most of them are either without vegetation or partially vegetated.

Highest number of ox-bow lakes / cut-off meanders are observed in Golaghat district (104 number) followed by Nagaon district (71 number) and Dhubri district (68 number). But area wise, the highest area under this category is observed in Morigaon district (2143.00 ha) followed by Nagaon (1746.00 ha) and Golaghat (1563.00 ha) districts. Some of the important wetlands under this category are Morikolong and Patoli beel in Nagaon district, Mer beel in Golaghat district and Guruajan in Morigaon district.

In Assam, a total of 1125 number of waterlogged areas are observed which are distributed unevenly covering an area of 23431.50 ha which constitutes 0.30 percent of the total geographical area of the state and 23.15 percent of the total area under wetlands. Majority of this type of wetlands have low turbidity.

Highest number of water(c)logged areas are observed in Cachar district (231 number) followed by Nagaon district (138 number) and Sonitpur district (110 number). But area wise, the highest area under this category is observed in Cachar district (4869.50 ha) followed by Karimganj (4667.00 ha) and Nagaon (2559.50 ha) districts. Some of the important wetlands under this category are Son beel in Karimganj district and Raumari beel in Darrang district.

These water-logged areas play significant role in the region’s economy as they are present in large numbers in the rural areas containing good amount of fishes and other aquatic fauna and providing habitat to a variety of migratory as well as domestic birds. Besides they have remarkable potential for supplying irrigation water to the nearby agricultural fields during the dry periods. There are some waterlogged areas which can be developed for recreational purposes and as tourist spots such as the Son beel in Karimganj district.

Swampy/Marshy areas

These swampy/marshy areas constitute another major group of wetlands in Assam. Due to the presence of varied quantities of minerals in the water, these swampy/marshy areas are either moderately or highly turbid. In most cases, there is no feeder channel to control the inflow or outflow of water.

In Assam, as many as 712 number of swampy/marshy areas have been identified from satellite data which cover an area of 43433.50 ha constituting 0.55 percent of the total geographical area of the state and 42.91 percent of the total area under wetlands. Majority of this type of wetlands are with low turbidity.

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Highest number of swampy/marshy areas are observed in Kamrup district (155 number) followed by Nagaon (92 number) and Goalpara (68 number) districts. But area wise, the highest area under this category is observed in Kamrup district (8109.50 ha) followed by Morigaon (7051.00 ha) and Nagaon (4764.50 ha) districts. Some of the important wetlands under this category are Nandan-Sonai beel in Morigaon district, Batha beel in Darrang district and Urpad beel in Goalpara district.

Reserviors

Reservoirs are artificial impoundments of water for irrigation, flood control, municipal water supplies, hydro-electric power generation and so forth. There are as many as 10 number of reservoirs covering an area of 2662.5 ha which constitutes 0.03 percent of the total geographical area of the state and 2.63 percent of the total area under wetlands. Majority of this type of wetlands contains water with low turbidity.

Highest number of reservoirs is observed in N.C.Hills district (4 nos.) followed by Golaghat and Nalbari districts (2 nos. each). But area wise, the highest area under this category is observed in N.C.Hills district (2365.00 ha) followed by Kamrup (220.00 ha) and Golaghat (37.50 ha) districts. Some of the important wetlands under this category are Garampani and Umrangsu in N.C.Hills district.

Ground Water Resource

Assam is one of the rich states of the country in term of the ground water development potentiality. The entire Brahmaputra valley, covering more than 70 per cent of the total geographical area of the state, contain prolific aquifer system with water table lying within 5 m of land surface. The Barak valley also has a good potentiality for the development of ground water. The present stage ground water development even in the Brahmaputra valley, the most populous part of the state, is nothing but in a nascent stage.

Water Pollution

The problem of water pollution is rampant in all thickly populated areas. Water does possess a self-cleaning property. The problem intensifies with the addition of pollutants in our water-ways from many sources like wastes from reactors, laboratories, hospitals and fallout from nuclear explosions, domestic wastes from the cities and towns, chemical wastes from factories and industrial units, etc. 90% of water pollution is due to human waste, which gives rise to such diseases as intestinal infection, hookworms, cholera, typhoid, infectious hepatitis, etc. chemicals like DDT, Parathion, lindane, etc contribute a great deal to water pollution.

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To prevent water pollution, the discharge of effluents from the industries as well as the use of DDT should be controlled. All domestic waste should be properly treated before discharging it into the water bodies. Acid rain can be prevented by reducing the emission of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen from power plants, fertiliser plants, etc.

Industries in Assam

Industries in Assam involve a vast quantity of industries which consist of petroleum and petrochemicals, tea, steel, sugar, fertilizers, handicrafts, handloom, cement, lime, coke, poultry and dairy products, plastic, cosmetics, paper, engineering and tourism.

The tourism industry of Assam is lucrative, thanks to its treasure trove of temples and its rich wildlife and natural beauty. In order to encourage trade with the neighbor country of Bangladesh, the Mankachar in Dhubri District, and Border Trade Centre at Sutarkandi, which is located in Karimganj district have been developed. Land Custom Stations or LCS is present for the purpose of promoting trade between the nations of Bhutan and Bangladesh.

Other industries which thrive in this Indian state are the petrochemical industries at Bongaigaon and Namrup, sugar mills at Kampur, Barua Bamun Gaon, cement plant at Bokajan & Badarpur, paper mills at the places of Jogighopa, Jagiroad and Panchgram, cosmetics plant of Hindustan Unilever (HUL) at Doomdooma and many more. Silk mills, jute mills, textile mills are amongst the several other local industries which are present in the state of Assam.

The infrastructure of the Eastern Indian state of Assam, particularly roads, railway etc. plays an important role in enhancing the industrial scenario of the state. Dibrugarh and Guwahati are well connected by a great network of rail, road and airports and therefore they have transformed into significant industrial units of Assam. International flights are scheduled to be introduced in the airport of Dibrugarh, especially for the destinations to South-Asian countries. It is believed that Dibrugarh is amongst the 10 most prosperous revenue districts in this state. Tinsukia is another nerve centre for industries in Assam.

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Statistics are of the view that Assam is an important producer of crude oil and about 15% of the nation’s crude output is a consequence of the production of crude oil here. Makum is a region in Assam where oil wells have been drilled mechanically, in 1867. There are as many as four oil refineries located in this state, namely Numaligarh, Digboi, Bongaigaon and Guwahati. Digboi was the very first place where the first refinery of Asia was established. Duliajan houses the organization known as Oil India Limited, which is the greatest oil company in the public sector.

Tea Industries

The tea industry in Assam is about 172 years old. It occupies an important place and plays a very useful part in the national economy. Robert Bruce in 1823 discovered tea plants growing wild in upper Brahmaputra Valley.

A tea garden was started by the Government in 1833 in erstwhile Lakhimpur district. With the arrival in London of the fine quality tea from this garden in 1938, the commercial circle of the city took a keen interest in tea plantations in Assam and a company known as the Assam Company was formed in 1839 to take over the experimental holdings of the East India Company’s Administration over the tea gardens established in Assam till then. This was the first company in India to undertake the commercial production of tea and was, in fact, the direct successor of the East India Company.

A site was cleared from the jungle at Nazira which became and remained as the headquarters of this company until it was shifted to Calcutta in 1965. The official incorporation of this Company was effected in 1845. This company, however, did not attain much prosperity during the first ten years of its existence.

By about 1852, under the management of George Williamson, one of the great pioneers in tea garden management, its condition began to improve and its success made the prospect of the industry so promising and attractive that speculators egarly rushed to it.

In 1859, the second important tea company, the Jorhat Tea Company was formed. To encourage tea plantation in the province, the Government also made liberal provisions for the settlement of the waste land for tea cultivation. In the early sixties, many provisions of the former waste Land Settlement Rules were waived. Between 1860 and 1865, the industry was the object of wild speculation. Then came the collapse in 1866, when all tea properties depreciated and all the babble concerns burst. So severe was the situation that a Government Commission of Enquiry had to be appointed.

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It reported that the industry was basically sound, and by 1870-71 public confidence was restored and development continued on sounder basis. In 1879, further slump occurred following the boom in prices due to a false rumour of shortage of exports from China. Though condition improved after three years, another slump occurred for a period between 1893 and 1906 because of over-production.

The industry did not recapture its expansion mood again in the present century. On the other hand, great improvements have been made in the yield per acre under tea, in the grouping of gardens under a limited number of companies, in the progressive mechanisation and rationalisation of production and in increasing their efficiency in regard to the productivity of labour.

In 1911, the Toklai Research Station was established near Jorhat with a view to carrying on research on cultivation and manufacture of tea. This Research Station has been very useful in disseminating knowledge for the increase of yield for the industry. The tea industry faced another crisis during the First World War due mainly to prices.

At the suggestion of the Indian Tea Association, the tea gardens in Assam stopped plucking on 15 November, 1923 to decrease the output in order to improve the price structure. Up to 1927 an era of prosperity followed, during which modernisation of factories and production techniques made rapid strides. The industry again faced an acute crisis during the early thirties. This crisis was successfully averted by enacting the Indian Tea Control Act, 1933, and instituting an International Tea Committee and Indian Tea Licensing Committee.

During the World war II, the industry again passed through a boom period and after 1951 it reached an unprecedented prosperity. Then followed a severe crisis in 1952 when prices of tea crashed to an extent often below the cost of production. Among the manifold causes suggested as being responsible for the recession in tea.

The most potent ones seemed to be over production in competing countries, a glut in medium and indifferent grades of tea which could not attract a ready market owing to the cessation of the bulk purchase system in the United Kingdom, and the impact of the general downward trend in the commodity prices during the post-Korean slum of late 1951 and early 1952. Conditions improved considerably in the following and since then the tea industry has been enjoying a satisfactory position, although it faced some difficulty due to severe drought in 1960.

The Opening of Tea Auction Centre at Guwahati on 25th Sept. 1970, augurs a new era for the tea industry of Assam. Marketing of tea has always been a problem for the products of this region. Previously the Tea Auction Centre at Calcutta was the only centre of sale for Assam Tea.

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The imposition of West Bengal Entry Tax on Assam Tea, transport bottlenecks and many more difficulties involved in arranging the sale at Calcutta Auction centre, necessitated the opening of the Tea Auction Centre in Assam which produces the bulk of it. Both in acreage and output the tea industry in Assam expanded very rapidly upto the 1920’s. But the increase of acreage slowed down considerably thereafter, though output continued to increased rapidly owing to a high yield per acre.

The Toklai Experimental Station has been helping the tea estates to increase their yields by improved techniques and cultivation and by control of diseases and pests affecting the plants. The coarser plucking, since the Second World war, has also contributed greatly to the higher yield per acre.

Only about one quarter of the total area of the tea estates is actually planted with tea. Even admitting that some portion of the garden land had been utilised or reserved for other purposes, eg., for factories, quarters for employees, future expansion, forests.etc., and that some portion is unsuitable for plantation or other cultivation, large tracts or waste land are still available in the tea estates. Some portion of this waste land might be devoted to cultivation of other crops like paddy, wheat, cotton, hemp and medicinal herbs.

From the very beginning of tea plantation in Assam, the planters have faced great difficulties in securing the necessary labour force. The experiment with immigrant Chinese labour in the early days proved a complete failure due to the high cost of requirement and maintenance and to the difficulties in their management.

Local labourers were not available in sufficient number. There was also the risk

of their desertion. It thus became necessary to bring labourers from other parts of India in large number to cope up with the expansion of the tea plantations in Assam. As a result of continuous inflow of immigrant labourers, there are now large number of tea garden labourers in the tea producing regions of the State.

Now, the Assam Tea has its international reputation and commands significant share in the world Tea Market. The total area under tea cultivation in Assam is

accounting for more than half of the country’s total area under tea. Assam alone produces more than half of India’s tea production. The estimated annual average production of tea in Assam is about 630- 700 million kg.

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Small Tea Growers – The Emerging Sector

Tea cultivations were once the domain of aristocrats with hardnosed British sahibs on horseback supervising them. But tea plantation in Assam has come a full circle as hundreds of small farmers have taken to growing the crop. The profession has now shifted from the rich to the common man, especially unemployed youths who have taken up tea cultivation as a business venture. Some even cultivate it in their backyards too.

The small tea growers sell the leaves to the nearby big plantations and Bought Leaf Factories where it is processed.

Across this tea-growing belt in eastern Assam, people in large numbers have started growing the crop in 3 to 5 acres of land. They have been provided with technical support and advice by experts at the Assam Agriculture University in Jorhat and also help from the Tocklai Tea Research Station for better yield and quality. The overheads and consequently the production cost of green tea leaves for small growers is much lower than those of the big gardens.

Spurred by the mushrooming growth of small tea growers, the Ministry of Commerce, Government of India recently took a team of young tea farmers from Assam to Kenya and Sri Lanka to help them get firsthand knowledge about the success of small tea cultivation in these two countries.

The Surge of the small tea growers

A sizable number of small farmers especially in upper Assam have taken up tea cultivation during last 15 years. Their relative contribution vis-à-vis the big gardens is more than 20% and the big gardens purchase a major part of their green leaf production. Using clone varieties of tea seedlings on small holdings, these small and marginal farmers are dependent on their crop as the main source of income.

Industrial infrastructure

With a view to provide infrastructure facilities to the Prospective Entrepreneurs/Investors the Assam Industrial Development Corporation (AIDC) and the Assam Industrial Infrastructure Development Corporation (AIIDC) have been asked to develop new Industrial parks by procuring more land in the State. Meanwhile various Industrial Infrastructures such as several Industrial Growth Centres, IID Projects, Industrial Parks etc. have already been established in almost all the districts

Open land of 80 lakh sq. m. have already been developed and so far 32 lakh sq. m. have been allotted to various Industrial Projects in the State. The remaining 48 lakh sq. m. or 1000 acres of developed land is available today. Besides readymade industrial sheds, the Department is in possession of huge plots of fully developed open land ready for allotment to the prospective parties interested in establishing their industries in different locations in the State.

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Thrust areas

Industrialization in Assam dates back to the days of first commercial plantation of tea and tea occupies an important position in the state’s economy. Apart from that, Assam, with its four refineries and allied produces a major part of the petroleum and petroleum-based products in India. Additionally, the 1600 registered factories include major, medium and small units in Central Public Sector, State Public Sector and Private & Joint sector.

The overall industrial scenario of the state is investment friendly. The Industrial Relations scenario in the state is peaceful. There is a low incidence of labour related disputes. Direct collective bargaining of negotiations between employers and employees is widely practiced.

The Government of Assam is emphasizing on adoption of a naturonomic investment strategy for eco-friendly sustainable development of the state.

The vast water resources of the state could be leveraged for harnessing hydro power, development of pisciculture / aquaculture and transportation links. The strategy also encompasses reinvention of tea industry, revolution in organic cultivation, eco-tourism, eco-infrastructure driven investment in rural and urban township and textile.

Assam has a vibrant industrial base. From the oldest tea industry and huge onshore oil production to the only Stock Exchange in the region and large presence of Banks and FIIs, its industrial base spreads across a wide spectrum of existing industries in petroleum, petrochemicals, fertilizers, textiles, cement, paper, plastics, cosmetics and a host of products and services. But there is always scope for more.

Amongst numerous options, the focus area identified for investment could be: Commercial Horticulture, Marketing of Fresh, Processed and Frozen Fruits and Vegetables; Commercial Cultivation, Extraction and Value Addition of Herbal Medicinal and Aromatic Plants; Information Technology; Electronics and Computer Hardware; Tourism and Tourism Infrastructure. Conventional areas of investment could be Hydrocarbons (Exploration & Production, Petrochemicals & Plastics); Minerals (Cement, Coal, Ceramic, Coke); Energy (Generation of Thermal/Hydel/Non- conventional Power).

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Amongst numerous options, the thrust areas identified for investment are as follows:

Food processing and Agro based Industries

The agro-climatic conditions of the state favour growing of a variety of fruits, vegetables/ spices like coconut, banana, pineapple, orange, ginger, turmeric, chillies, pepper, etc. Mechanized and scientific cultivation of Agriculture and Horticultural produces are being adopted in the state. Until recently, horticulture was practiced as a largely non-commercial activity. With better quality planting material, organic farming, adequate research support and better know-how, the state could easily cause a major boom in horticulture and food processing sector.

The sector has the potential to grow at a rapid pace in Assam with the increasing demand for processed food. The wastage of perishables due to non availability of adequate processing infrastructure. With the favourable agro climatic conditions that are conducive for a wide range of products, opportunities in the sector abound in processing, sourcing, inclusive farming, logistics and cold chains.

Mineral based and Plastic industries

Major minerals available is crude oil (reserve – over 1.3 billion tonnes) and the state accounts for about 15% of India’s crude output. The wells at Digboi, Duliajan, Sivasagar also produce Natural gas (reserve-156 billion cu. mtrs.) accounting to about 50% of India’s total onshore production which may be used as feedstock for production of fertilizers, electricity, petrochemicals and also as fuel in the industries.

A gas cracker unit (BCPL), is now functioning for polymerization of HDPE/LLDPE and Polypropylene will supply huge intermediate feedstock for further processing in a host of downstream polymer units.

Limestone with reserves of about 700 million tonnes is another important mineral available in various grades. The China clay from Karbi Anglong district is a vital input for the ceramics industry. Deposits of decorative stone like granite estimated to be more than a billion cubic meters are available in various shades and

colours and has a huge domestic as well as export market. Coal reserves account for more than 320 million tonnes. The coal found in upper Assam and the Central Assam highland has high sulphur content, high volatile matter content, high calorific value and low ash content.

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With reserves of around 1.3 billion tonnes of crude oil and 156 billion cubic metres of natural gas, and the same being available at attractive prices, Assam is an ideal destination for energy / oil and gas based industries. There is ample scope for gas and coal based thermal stations.

With 4 Refineries, Gas Cracker project in operation, Assam presents a new ground for downstream industries specializing in petro, plastic and allied products.

Bamboo based industries

Bamboo, which is the fastest growing plant and generates large bio-mass, holds the potential to replace wood on many grounds. India is 2nd largest in bamboo resources in the world next only to China. The North Eastern region holds about 65% of the country’s total estimated stock which is around 90 million tonnes.

The Government of India has launched the National Bamboo Mission with focus on North East India. Opportunities abound in the areas of re-inventing bamboo in plywood units and paper mills, micro-propagation & production, shoot processing, industrial products, machinery & equipment and skill up-gradation & training. A Bamboo Technology Park at Chaygaon is likely to be operational soon with its state of art technology.

Extraction and Value Addition of Herbal Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

With its vast hills and forests, Assam is the home of a variety of medicinal herbs and plants. About 300 types of medicinal herbs and plants are known to exist in abundance in the State. An approximate calculation states that only about 5-10% of the plants and herbs are commercially cultivated for extraction purposes and hence present a huge resource.

Information Technology related activities

Assam has a large manpower base that is highly skilled in Information Technology. As such, opportunities exist for IT enabled services like software development, call centres, back office operations, data entry and conversion, transcription and translation, content development, animation, engineering and design, market research, consultancy and management.

Hospitality industry and Tourism, etc.

To nature lovers all over the world, wildlife enthusiasts, sightseers, ornithologists and photographers, Assam is a dream destination. Its landscape, lush green forests, wild life sanctuaries, pilgrimage spots and tea gardens offer a wide choice to cater to the tastes of tourists from different backgrounds. A few popular tourist destinations in the state are:

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National Park: Kaziranga, Manas, Orang, Sonai, Rupai

Wildlife Sanctuaries: Laokhowa, Pobitora, Dibru- Chaikhowa, Nameri

Scenic Beauty: Chandubi, Bhairabkunda, Darranga, Bhalukpung, Haflong

Pilgrimage: Guwahati, Hajo, Majuli

Historical sites: Batadrawa, Tezpur, Sivasagar, Barpeta

Golf courses with air strips: Narengi, Borsola, East Boraoi and 21 others Projections show that foreign tourist inflow into Assam will grow by around six- fold in the next five years. Add to that a projected increase of 15-20% in domestic tourists in the next five years and the government’s thrust on tourism and related activities, the state presents a number of emerging opportunities – in tourism infrastructure like hotels, resorts, amusement parks, river cruises, airstrip development and in joint tourism circuit development like heritage circuits, wildlife tourism, eco- tourism, cultural tourism, pilgrimage and tea-golf circuits.

Demography of Assam

Demography is the statistical study of populations, especially human beings. Demography examines the size, structure, and movements of populations over space and time. It uses methods from history, economics, anthropology, sociology, and other fields.

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Assam population in 2021 is estimated to be 36 Million (3.6 Crores), As per Unique Identification India data, updated 31, May 2020, by mid of year 2020 the projected population is 35,607,039. Currently Assam state has an area of 78,438 sq km with density of 397 people per sq km. As per Niti Aayog 2016 report, Total Fertility Rate of Assam is 2.3.

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The first census conducted in the era of British India in 1901 is recorded as 3.28 million. The 6th census was conducted by Independent India in 1951 and the recorded population growth was 2.44 times in the span of 50 years from 1901 to 1951 is 8 million, and for the next 50 years from 1951 to 2001 the population growth recorded was 3.44 times and the 2001 census was 26 million. The growth rate from

Census year Persons Absolute Percentage Males Females

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Population growth rate of Assam

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Assam Population 2011

details from Census 2011, Assam has population of 3.12 Crores, an increase from figure of 2.67 Crore in 2001 census. Total population of Assam as per

2011 census is 31,205,576 of which male and female are 15,939,443 and 15,266,133 respectively.

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In 2001, total population was 26,655,528 in which males were 13,777,037 while females were 12,878,491. The total population growth in this decade was 17.07 percent while in previous decade it was 18.85 percent.

The population of Assam forms 2.58 percent of India in 2011. In 2001, the figure was 2.59 percent.

Recently as per Assam census data, 87.92% houses are owned while 6.84% were rented. In all, 74.13% couples in Assam lived in single family.

Population Pyramid of Assam Census 2011

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Assam Religious Data

Hinduism is majority religion in state of Assam with 61.47 % followers. Islam is second most popular religion in state of Assam with approximately 34.22% following it.

In Assam state, Christinity is followed by 3.74 %, Jainism by 0.08 %, Sikhism by 0.07% and Buddhism by 0.07 %. Around 0.09 % stated ‘Other Religion’, approximately 0.16 % stated ‘No Particular Religion’.

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Description Population Percentage

Hindu 19,180,759 61.47%

Muslim 10,679,345 34.22%

Christian 1,165,867 3.74 %

Buddhist 54,993 0.18%

Not Available 50,873 0.16%

Other Religion 27,118 0.09 %

Jain 25,949 0.08%

Sikh 20,672 0.07%

Assam Urban Population 2011

Out of total population of Assam, 14.10% people live in urban regions. The total figure of population living in urban areas is 4,398,542 of which 2,260,454 are males and while remaining 2,138,088 are females. The urban population in the last 10 years has increased by 14.10 percent.

Sex Ratio in urban regions of Assam was 946 females per 1000 males. For child (0-6) sex ratio the figure for urban region stood at 944 girls per 1000 boys. Total children (0-6 age) living in urban areas of Assam were 450,807. Of total population in urban region, 10.25 % were children (0-6).

Average Literacy rate in Assam for Urban regions was 88.47 percent in which males were 91.81% literate while female literacy stood at 79.85%. Total literates in urban region of Assam were 3,492,541.

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Assam Rural Population 2011

Of the total population of Assam state, around 85.90 percent live in the villages of rural areas. In actual numbers, males and females were 13,678,989 and 13,128,045 respectively.

Total population of rural areas of Assam state was 26,807,034. The population growth rate recorded for this decade (2001-2011) was 85.90%.

In rural regions of Assam state, female sex ratio per 1000 males was 960 while same for the child (0-6 age) was 964 girls per 1000 boys. In Assam, 4,187,323 children (0-6) live in rural areas. Child population forms 15.62 percent of total rural population.

In rural areas of Assam, literacy rate for males and female stood at 75.40 % and 60.05%. Average literacy rate in Assam for rural areas was 69.34 percent. Total literates in rural areas were 15,685,436.

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Decadal change in Assam population

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Ethnic groups

The tribes of Assam and their population as per census 2011 are:

Tribes Population as per Census 2011

All Scheduled Tribes 3,884,371

Chakma 2,032

Dimasa, Kachari 102,961

Garo 25,315

Hajong 436

Hmar 15,745

Khasi, Jaintia, Synteng, Pnar, War, Bhoi, Lyngngam 15,936

Any Kuki Tribes 33,399

Lakher 37

Man (Tai speaking) 1,269

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Any Mizo (Lushai) tribes 880

Karbi 430,452

Any Naga tribes 29,767

Pawi 3

Syntheng 5

Lalung 18,252

Barmans in Cachar 6,716

Boro, Borokachari 1,361,735

Deori 43,750

Hojai 642

Kachari, Sonwal 253,344

Lalung 182,663

Mech 9,883

Miri 680,424

Rabha 296,189

Dimasa 19,702

Hajong 34,253

Singhpho 2.342

Khampti 1,106

Garo 136,077

Generic Tribes etc. 179,056

Languages spoken in Assam

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Assamese is one of the major language spoken in Assam with 48.3%, followed by Sylheti (dialect of Bengali) with 28.9% and Hindi with 6.7%. Assamese, Sylheti and Bodo are the official languages.

Languages spoken in Assam

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Part C: Political System of Assam

Political Administrative System of Assam

Syllabus:

Governor, Chief Minister, State Assembly, High Court, Assam Public Service Commission, District Administration, State Human Rights Commission, State Election Commission, State Information Commission, Public Policy, Legal Rights and Citizen Charter.

Index

Political and administrative setup of Assam
Governor

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President Rule in Assam

List of Governors of Assam

Chief Minister

Chief Minister and the Governor

Differences between Cabinet and Council of Ministers

List of CM of Assam

A Brief Historical Profile of Assam Legislative Assembly

Speaker of the Assembly

Deputy Speaker

List of the Speakers of the Assam Legislative Assembly

High Court

Gauhati High Court

Assam Public Service Commission
District Administration of Assam
Panchayati Raj in Assam
Assam Human Rights Commission
State Election Commission
State Information Commission 12. Public Policy
Legal Rights
Citizen Charter

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Like most other Indian states, Assam has a governmental structure that is defined by the national constitution of 1950. The governor, who is the head of state, is appointed by the president of India and is assisted by a popularly elected unicameral legislature and a Council of Ministers led by a chief minister, who is head of government. The state of Assam comprises nearly three dozen districts, each of which is administered by a deputy commissioner. Districts are subdivided at several levels, with the village as the smallest administrative unit.

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The high court at Guwahati has jurisdiction not only over the state of Assam but also over the states of Nagaland, Mizoram, and Arunachal Pradesh through outlying benches. The chief justice and all other high court justices are appointed by India’s president. Permanent judges serve until they are a maximum of 62 years old. Short-term judges are appointed to help with periodic backlogs. Lower courts include district courts, sessions courts, and magistrate’s courts.

The political structure of Assam in India is headed by the ceremonial post of the Governor. He is assisted by a council of ministers, headed by the Chief Minister, who are members of the Assam Assembly. In recent years the Governor has become more powerful, especially because the last two Governors have been ex-Army generals and the Army is entrusted with anti-insurgency operations against ULFA and other armed groups.

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Governor

The Governor is the state’s chief executive officer. He acts as a representative of the union government. The Governor has executive power over the state, and all executive actions must be made in his or her name. The constitution’s Seventh Amendment, passed in 1956, allowed for the appointment of the same individual as Governor of two or more states.

The Governor – Qualifications

The Indian Constitution specifies two basic qualities for the selection of a Governor.

He should be an Indian citizen.
He must be at least 35 years old.

Over time, the following conventions have emerged:

He should be an outsider who does not reside in the state where he will be appointed.
When appointing the Governor of a state, the President must consult with the state’s Chief Minister.

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However, in some cases, both conventions have been violated.

The Governor – Appointment

The Indian Constitution, in Article 165, enables and authorises the President of India to appoint the Governor of State by warrant under his hand and seal for a five-year term.

The Governor is not directly elected by the people, and neither is he elected indirectly by a special electoral college.

The Governor is appointed by the President and serves at his pleasure.

The chief justice or the senior most judge of the concerned High Court administers the Governor’s oath of office (if the chief justice is unavailable).

The Governor – Terms of Office

The Governor serves for a term of five years from the date he assumed office, subject to the President’s pleasure.

Governors whose terms have expired may be reappointed in the same or a different state.

The President has the authority to transfer a Governor from one state to another for the remainder of his tenure. Governor can serve over his five-year term until the next appointment is made.

Conditions of Office of Governor

The Governor’s office follows the procedures and conditions provided forth in the Indian Constitution.

He should not occupy any office of profit.

He should not be a member of the House of Parliament or any state legislature.

He is entitled to such allowances, emoluments, and privileges as Parliament determines.

During his tenure of office, his emoluments and allowances cannot be reduced.

If he is appointed as Governor of two or more states, the Governor’s allowances and emoluments are divided among the states in a proportion specified by the President.

He has the right to utilise Raj Bhawan as his official residence without having to pay rent.

Removal

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A Governor of a state is an appointee of the President, according to Articles 155 and 156 of the Constitution, and he or she serves “at the pleasure of the President.”

If a Governor continues to have the “pleasure of the President,” he or she can serve another five years.

The grounds for a Governor’s removal by the President are not specified in the constitution.

The Governor’s office has no fixed term and no security of tenure because the President can remove him at any time.

After submitting his resignation letter to the President, the Governor can resign from his office.

Constitutional Position

Article 153 of the Indian Constitution mandates the appointment of a Governor in each state. The 7th Amendment to the Constitution however, allows for the appointment of the same person as Governor of two or more states.

The provisions of Articles 154, 163, and 164 of the Constitution empower the constitutional post of Governor.

Article 154: The Governor shall have executive power over the state, which he shall exercise either directly or through officers subordinate to him in conformity with this Constitution.

Article 163: There shall be a council of ministers, led by the Chief Minister, to assist and advise the Governor in the exercise of his powers, except when he is compelled to execute his functions at his discretion.

Article 164: The council of ministers is collectively responsible to the state’s legislative assembly. This provision is the cornerstone of the state’s parliamentary system of governance.

The Governor – Power and Functions

The Governor has the same Executive, Legislative, Financial, and Judicial authorities as the President of India. However, the Governor’s power is restricted in several ways compared to that of the President, as the Governor lacks the President’s military, diplomatic, and emergency authorities.

Executive Powers of the Governor

The Governor is the chief executive of the state.

The Governor takes all executive decisions on behalf of the state government [Article 166(1)].

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The Governor appoints the Chief Minister and other cabinet members. They serve at the pleasure of the Governor [Article 164].

He may create rules for the efficient execution of a state government’s work and its distribution among the ministers. [Article 166(3)]

He appoints the state’s advocate general and determines his tenure and conditions of service.

He has the authority to recommend to the President the declaration of a state of constitutional emergency.

He may request from the Chief Minister any information pertaining to the administration of the state’s affairs, as well as legislative suggestions [Article 167].

The governor appoints the state election commissioner and establishes his term of office and working conditions [Article 243K].

He appoints the chairman of the state public service commission as well as the members of the commission. They can, however, only be dismissed by the President and not by a Governor.

He serves as Chancellor of the state’s universities and appoints Vice Chancellors.

The Governor appoints the Chief Minister, while the Governor appoints the other ministers on the advice of the Chief Ministers.

Administration of Scheduled Areas

The President has the authority to declare an area a Scheduled Area. The Governor of the state submits a report to the President on the administration of the state’s Scheduled Areas.

The Governor has the authority to decide whether a certain act of parliament or state legislature is applicable or not to Scheduled Areas, and if so, whether it should be applied with modifications.

After consulting with the Tribes Advisory Council, the Governor sets rules for peace and good government in Scheduled Areas.

State Administration During President’s Rule or a State Emergency

The President’s rule in the state may be declared in accordance with two articles of the constitution.

Article 356: Give the President the authority to issue a proclamation if he believes that a situation has developed in which the state government cannot function in conformity with the provisions of the Constitution.

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Article 365: Whenever a state government fails to comply with or give effect to any instruction from the center, the President may declare that a situation has developed in which the state’s administration cannot be carried on in line with the provisions of the Constitution.

Following the proclamation of President’s Rule or State Emergency, the Governor administers the state on behalf of the President, with the assistance of the state’s Chief Secretary or advisors selected by the President.

Legislative Powers of the Governor

The Governor has the authority to call or dissolve the state legislature based on the advice of the state’s ministerial council, which is led by the state’s Chief Minister.

The Governor presents to the state legislature the reports of the State Finance Commission, the State Public Service Commission, and the Comptroller and Auditor General.

He appoints one-sixth of the State Legislative Council members. Such nominees should have exceptional understanding in science, literature, social service, and cooperative movement [Article 171(5)].

The Governor has the authority to address the state legislature at the start of its first session, as well as the first session of each year.

The Governor addresses both Houses of the state legislature in a joint session [Article 176]. She/he has the ability to deliver messages to any or both Houses [Article 175].

When the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker become empty, the Governor may designate any member of the state legislative assembly to preside over the proceedings.

In conjunction with the Election Commission, the Governor has the authority to rule In conjunction with the Election Commission, th on the disqualification of a member of the state legislature [Article 192].

When the state legislature is not in session, the Governor has the authority to issue ordinances. The ordinances must be authorised by the legislature within six weeks of their adoption [Article 213]. The Governor has the authority to revoke the ordinance at any moment.

Financial Power of the Governor

No money measure may be tabled in the State Legislative Assembly without the Governor’s prior approval.

The Governor is in charge of the State Contingency Fund. She/he is entitled to make advances from the state contingency fund to cover any unforeseen expenses (Article 267).

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Grants may not be requested unless he recommends it [Article 203(3)].

Under the supervision of the Governor, the annual financial statement or state budgets are submitted before the state legislative assembly [Article 202].

The Governor appoints the state finance commission for a five-year term. In its function, the commission examines the financial circumstances of municipalities and Panchayats [Article 243(1)].

Judicial Powers of the Governor

Article 161 grants the Governor the authority to give pardons, reprieves, respites, or remission of penalty, or to suspend, remit, or commute the sentence of any person convicted by the Courts of any offence against any legislation related to a matter to which the State’s executive jurisdiction extends.

Governor cannot commute a death sentence.

In consultation with the state high court, the Governor appoints, posts, and promotes District Judges.

The President consults the Governor before appointing the chief justice and judges of the relevant state high court.

Pardoning Powers of Governor

Governor has the authority to pardon, reprieve, respite, remit, postpone, or commute the punishment or sentence of any person convicted of any violation of state law.

Pardon: It relieves the offender of all sentences, punishments, and disqualifications by removing both the penalty and the conviction.
Commutation: It refers to the exchange of one type of punishment for a less severe form of punishment. A death sentence, for example, may be reduced to harsh imprisonment.
Remission: This term refers to shortening the length of a sentence without changing its essence. A sentence of rigorous imprisonment for two years, for example, may be reduced to rigorous imprisonment for one year.
Respite: It is the awarding of a lower sentence in exchange of the original sentence owing to some particular circumstance, such as the convict’s physical impairment or the pregnancy of a female offender.
Reprieve: It denotes a temporary suspension of execution of a sentence (e.g., death penalty). Its goal is to provide the convict enough time to seek pardon or commutation.

Limitations:

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Governor does not possess any such power to grant pardon, reprieve, respite, suspension, remission or commutation in respect to punishment or sentence by a court-martial (military court).

Discretionary Powers

The discretionary powers of the Governor in the state are far greater than those of the President in the centre. Some of the Governor’s discretionary powers are as follows:

A law passed by the state legislative assembly may be reserved for the President’s assent by the Governor [Article 200].

The governor determines the amount of money payable by the tribal government (Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Tripura) to an autonomous Tribal District Council as royalty on mineral development licences.

The governor may decline to sign a regular bill passed by the state legislature.

When no political party has a clear majority in the state legislature, he has the authority to nominate anyone as Chief Minister.

Under Article 356, he can recommend to the President the imposition of constitutional emergency in a state and the imposition of President’s rule in the state.

While performing his duties as the administrator of an adjoining union territory, he has the authority to act at his discretion (in case of additional charge).

He can seek information from the chief minister on state administrative and legislative concerns.

The governor has the authority to remove the council of ministers, when it cannot prove the confidence in the state legislative assembly.

Issues related to the governor’s role he governor’s role

Abuse of power by the centre: There are numerous examples of the Governor’s position being abused, usually at the behest of the ruling party at the Centre. The process of appointment has generally been the cause behind it.

Biased ideology: In several cases, politicians and former bureaucrats identifying with a particular political ideology have been appointed as the Governors by the central government. This goes against the constitutionally mandated neutral seat and has resulted in bias, as appears to have happened in Karnataka and Goa.

Puppet rulers: Recently, the Governor of Rajasthan has been charged with the violation of the model code of conduct. His support of the ruling party is against the spirit of non- partisanship that is expected from the person sitting on constitutional posts. Due to such incidents, negative terms like an agent of the Centre, Puppet and rubber stamps are used to describe a governor of the state.

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Favouring a particular political party: Governor’s discretionary powers to invite the leader of the largest party/alliance, post-election, to form the government has often been misused to favour a particular political party.

Misuse of power: The Governors Committee (1971) laid down the responsibility on the governor to see that the administration of the state does not breakdown due to political instability and he must send a regular report about the political situation of the State.

However, the imposition of President’s rule (Article 356) in case of breakdown of constitutional machinery in a State has been frequently misused by the central government.

Important Judgements related to Article 356

S.R. Bommai Judgment

In S.R. Bommai case (1994), following the Sarkaria Commission’s recommendations, the Supreme Court underlined that the breakdown of constitutional machinery implied a virtual impossibility, and not a mere difficulty, in carrying out governance in a State.

SC said that while the subjective satisfaction of the President regarding such a breakdown was beyond judicial scrutiny, the material on which such satisfaction was based could certainly be analysed by the judiciary, including the Governor’s report.

The Court reinstated the governments in Arunachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand which were suspended after the arbitrary imposition of the President’s Rule.

The Supreme Court classified the instances of failure of constitutional machinery into four heads:

Political crises.
Internal subversion.
Physical breakdown.
Non-compliance with constitutional directions of the Union Executive.

Other Cases and Recommendation

The Supreme Court in the Nabam Rebia judgment (2016) ruled that the exercise of Governor’s discretion Article 163 is limited and his choice of action should not be arbitrary or fanciful. It must be a choice dictated by reason, actuated by good faith and tempered by caution.

The Administrative Reforms Commission (1968) recommended that the report of the governor regarding the president’s rule has to be objective and also the governor should exercise his own judgment in this regard.

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The Rajamannar Committee (1971) recommended the deletion of Articles 356 and 357 from the constitution of India. The necessary provisions for safeguards against arbitrary action of the ruling party at the Centre under Article 356 should be incorporated in the constitution.

The Rajamannar Committee emphasised that the governor of the state should not consider himself as an agent of the centre but play his role as the constitutional head of the State.

The Sarkaria Commission (1988) recommended that Article 356 should be used in very rare cases when it becomes unavoidable to restore the breakdown of constitutional machinery in the State.

The commission recommended that before taking action under Article 356, a warning should be issued to the state government that it is not functioning according to the constitution.

“Justice V.Chelliah Commission” (2002) recommended that Article 356 must be used sparingly and only as a remedy of the last resort after exhausting all actions under Articles 256, 257 and 355.

The “Punchhi commission” recommended that these Articles 355 & 356 be amended. It sought to protect the interests of the States by trying to curb their misuse by the Centre.

Governors are also allocated special tasks for specific sections of the country in order to improve administration

Article 371(2) designates the Governors of Maharashtra and Gujarat as having specific responsibility for the establishment of development boards in Vidarbha, Marathwada, Saurashtra, and Kutch, among other places.
Article 371A assigns the Governor of Nagaland specific responsibility for law and order

As long as internal disturbances prevail in any sections of the state

To form a Tuensang district regional council

To make arrangements for an equitable distribution of funds between Tuensang district and the rest of Nagaland.

Article 371C(1) assigns the Governor of Manipur the special obligation of ensuring the proper functioning of a Legislative Assembly committee composed of members from the hill areas.

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Article 371F(g) assigns special responsibility to the Governor of Sikkim for maintaining peace and ensuring the advancement of all sections of Sikkim’s population.
Article 371H(a) assigns the Governor of Arunachal Pradesh special responsibility for maintaining law and order in the state.

Immunities Enjoyed by the governor

No criminal proceedings may be brought against a state’s governor in any court during his full term of office [Article 361(2)].

No court has the authority to issue an arrest warrant for the Governor. [Article 361(3)]

During his tenure of office, the Governor is not personally accountable or answerable to any court for the exercise and performance of his power [Article 361(1)].

Civil procedures in respect of his personal acts 361(4) can be launched against him during his term of office after giving two months’ notice.

Breaches on the Governor’s Constitutional Immunity

Recently, there have been a few instances of the Governor’s constitutional immunity being violated.

The CBI questioned the governors of West Bengal and Goa over their roles in the defence deal: In the recent case of the Governors of West Bengal and Goa being questioned, the room highlighted the topic of a legal dispute over whether they are entitled to constitutional immunity from inquiry. The Central Bureau of Investigation has questioned the Governors of West Bengal and Goa about alleged corruption in the sale of 12 helicopters to India by Agusta-Westland (an Anglo-Italian defence manufacturer).

Madhya Pradesh’s Vyapam Case On a petition seeking the removal of the Madhya Pradesh Governor for his alleged role in the Vyapam scam, the Supreme Court issued a notice to the state government and the governor of Madhya Pradesh. The role of the Governor was underlined by the Central Bureau of Investigation in the Vyapam inquiry investigation, as he enjoys constitutional immunity from arrest and criminal investigation.

Veto Powers of Governor

Ordinary Bill

Every ordinary bill, after being enacted by the legislative assembly in the case of a unicameral legislature or by the Houses in the case of a bicameral legislature, is presented to the Governor for assent, who may –

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Give assent to the bill, which then becomes an act.
Withhold assent to the bill, the bill then ends and does not become and act.
Refer the bill back to the House of Representatives for reconsideration. If the bill is passed by both houses again, with or without amendments, and given to the Governor for his approval, the Governor must approve it. As a result, the Governor enyoys only suspensive veto.
Reserve the bill for the President’s consideration, When the Governor reserves a bill ofr the President’s consideration, he has no further role in the bill’s enactment.
If the President returns the bill to the House of Houses for reconsideration and it is passed again, the law must be offered again for Presidential assent only.
If the President gives assent to the bill, it becomes an act. This means that the Governor’s approval is no longer required.

Money Bill

After being passed by the State Legislature, a money bill is forwarded to the Governor for his approval, who

Give assent o the bill, and it will become an act.
Withhold assent to the bill, the bill then ends and does not become an act,
Reserved the bill for the President’s consideration. As a result, the Governor cannot return a money bill to the state assembly for reconsideration.
When the Governor reserves a money bill for the President’s consideration, he has no furher role in the bill’s enactment, When the President gives his assent to the bill, it becomes and Act. This means that the Governor’s appoorval is no longer required.

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Note: As the Supreme Court ruled in 1979, the office of Governor is not a position or Employment in the Central Government. The Governor’s office is an independent constitutional post that is neither subordinate to nor controlled by the central government. In the B. P. Singhal case, a Supreme Court Constitutional bench ruled in 2010 that the central government has the authority to remove Governors of various states as long as it does not act arbitrarily, without reason, or in bad faith. Thus the Governor of a state serves as both the constitutional head of the state and the center’s agent or representative.

President Rule in Assam:

12 December 1979 5 December 1980 359 days

30 June 1981 13 January 1982 197 days

19 March 1883 27 February 1983 345 days

28 November 1990 30 June 1991 214 days

‘Assam Agitation’ against illegal foreign national staying in Assam started to take roots under the leadership of the All Assam Students’ Union (AASU). The violence fuelled by United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) resulted in break down of law and order.

Congress (1) government led by Anwara Taimur representing immigrant minorities collapsed following intensification of ‘Assam Agitation’ against illegal foreign national staying in Assam.

Congress (1) government led by Kesab Gogoi 345 days representing ethnic Asom people collapsed following continued violence in Assam.

Government dismissed in spite of AGP CM Prafulla Mahanta enjoying majority support in Assembly. The dismissal was triggered apparently by the threat 214 days to internal security due to banned organisation ULFA’s activities. During the president’s rule, Operation Bajrang was launched to flush out ULFA militants.

List of Governors of Assam Tenure

Name

(Copy from Asom Quiz and edit)

Continues

Chief Minister

Who is called a Chief Minister?

Chief Minister is the real head of the state government. The governor is the nominal executive of the state government. As per the Constitution of India, the governor is the state’s de jure head, but de facto executive authority rests with the chief minister.

How is a Chief Minister appointed?

According to Article 164 in the Indian Constitution, Governor appoints Chief Minister. However, the Governor cannot appoint any random person as the Chief Minister but has to follow a provision.

A leader of the party that has got the majority share of votes in the assembly elections, is appointed as the Chief Minister of the state.

The Chief Minister – Appointment Process

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The governor appoints the leader of the largest party of the house or leader chosen by the largest coalition to become the chief minister.

If no party has a clear majority, the governor may use situational discretion. He may appoint a leader as chief minister and then demonstrate his majority on the floor of the parliament.

If the chief minister dies without a successor, the governor may pick one at his discretion; however, if the ruling party nominates someone, the governor has no choice but to appoint that person.

If the CM does not become a member of either house within six months, he loses his position as CM. The governor appoints the CM, but the governor cannot dismiss him until he has a majority in the house.

Following the general election for the State Legislative Assembly, the party or coalition that obtains a majority in the House elects its leader and notifies the Governor. The Governor then names him Chief Minister and instructs him to form a Council of Ministers.

When the State Legislative Assembly lacks a clear majority, the Governor often approaches the leader of the single largest party to form a government.

What is the term of Chief Minister’s office?

Aspirants should clearly understand that the term of Chief Minister is not fixed and he holds his office during the

Note:

Governor cannot remove him any time.

Governor cannot even dismiss him till the time he enjoys the support of the majority of the house.

When CM loses his majority support, he has to resign and Governor dismisses him then.

What is the main function of the Chief Minister?

The CM of the state performs functions in relation to the different categories of people:

In relation to the Council of Ministers
In relation to the Governor

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In relation to the State Legislature

Other than that, he also performs the following functions:

He chairs the State Planning Board
He is a vice-chairperson of the concerned zonal council by rotation, holding that office for a period of one year at a time
He is a member of Inter-State Council and National Development Council which are headed by the Prime Minister.

In Relation to the Council of Ministers

The Chief Minister is the head of state council of ministers. He performs the following functions:

He recommends to the governor on who to appoint as ministers
He designates or reshuffles the portfolios of the ministers
He can ask a minister to resign
Meeting of the council of ministers is headed by him
All activities of the ministers are guided and controlled by the Chief Minister
If he resigns, the entire council of ministers collapses.

Note: If the CM dies (or resigns), the council automatically dissolves.

In Relation to the Governor

In relation to the governor, the Chief Minister performs the following functions:

All the activities, decisions that are taken up by the council of ministers are communicated to the governor by the chief minister
To report to the governor, information about the administrative affairs if and when asked by the governor
If any minister has decided on any issue, the same has to be reported to the Governor by the Chief Minister when the same has not been considered by the council.
He gives his advice to the governor for the appointment of the following persons:
Advocate-General
Chairman of state public service commission
The state election commission, etc.

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In Relation to the State Legislature

He is the leader of the house and holding this position, he performs the following functions:

Before a governor prorogues and summons the sessions of the state legislature, the Chief Minister’s advice is a must
Legislative Assembly can be dissolved at any time on his recommendation to the governor
All government policies are announced by him on the floor of the house.

Chief Minister and the Governor

The relationship between the Chief Minister of the state and the state’s governor has always been in the news. The debate on the authority of the respective posts has made the rounds throughout.

Article 163 The governor is advised by the council of ministers which is headed by the Chief Minister.

Note: When the governor acts at his own discretion, no advice is needed by the council

Article 164

Governor appoints Chief Minister and later Chief Minister recommends Governor on the appointment of ministers

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Article 167

Chief Minister has to communicate all administrative decisions that are taken up by him and the council of ministers to the governor

Who are State Council of Ministers

State Council of Ministers is similar to Central Council of Ministers. The state council is headed by the Chief Minister. The council comprises ministers appointed by the governor on the recommendation of the CM.

Composition of Council of Ministers

The size of the council is not mentioned in the Indian Constitution. Chief Minister decides the size and the rank of the ministers as per the requirement in the State Legislature.

There are three categories of Council of Ministers:

Cabinet Ministers
Ministers of State
Deputy Ministers

Collective Responsibility

The provision of collective responsibility is dealt with by Article 164. The Article mentions that the council of ministers are collectively responsible to the state legislature. (To read more about the important articles in the Indian Constitution, refer to the linked article.) This means that all the ministers own joint responsibility to the legislative assembly for all their acts of omission and commission.

Note:

When the legislative assembly passed a no-confidence motion against the council, all the ministers of the council have to resign including those belonging to Legislative Council too.

The council of ministers can advise the governor to dissolve the legislative assembly on the ground that the House does not represent the views of the electorate faithfully and call for fresh elections. The governor may not oblige the council of ministers which has lost the confidence of the legislative assembly.

Differences between Cabinet and Council of Ministers

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Cabinet

The cabinet consists of many senior ministers who hold important portfolios such as defence, home affairs, education etc.

It was conferred the status of a constitutional body It is a constitutional body after the passing of the Constitutional Amendment Act of 1978 (Also Known as 44th Amendment)

The Cabinet consists of some of the most experienced ministers. Thus the Prime Minister seeks their advice on important matters. The decisions of the cabinet are binding to all ministers.

It enforces the collective responsibility of the council to its members.

The Cabinet meets as frequently as possible to formulate policies and to decide on certain matters of national importance.

The size of the cabinet is about 15-20 ministers

Council of Ministers

They consist of Cabinet Ministers, Deputy Ministers and Ministers of State.

It is a constitutional body.

It is up to the Prime Minister to consult with the council of ministers or not when it comes to making important decisions.

It enforces collective responsibility to the lower houses of the parliament.

The meetings between the council of ministers are rare.

The council of ministers usually consists of about 60 to 70 ministers of the government.

Other Responsibilities of CM:

He is the chairman of the State Planning Board.

He acts as a vice-chairman of the concerned zonal council by rotation, holding office for a period of one year at a time.

He is a member of the Inter-State Council and the Governing Council of NITI Aayog, both headed by the prime minister.

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He is the chief spokesman of the state government.

He is the crisis manager-in-chief at the political level during emergencies.

As a leader of the state, he meets various sections of the people and receives memoranda from them regarding their problems, and so on.

He is the political head of the services.

All decisions of the council of ministers relevant to state administration must be communicated to the Governor by the CM. The CM advises the Governor on significant appointments such as the Attorney General, the State Public Service Commission (Chairman and Members), and the State Election Commission, among others. As a result, it plays a critical role in the Indian Constitution and in the states.

List of CM of Assam

(Copy from Asom Quiz and Edit)

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A Brief Historical Profile of Assam Legislative Assembly

The Assam Legislative Assembly came into being on the day of its first sitting on April 7, 1937 in the Assembly Chamber at Shillong, the erstwhile Capital of the composite State of Assam.

Situated in the North East of the Country, Assam has had a glorious history of her own. Popularly known as the ethnological museum of India, Assam has been described as Mini-India, having a rich cultural heritage with diverse race, religion and culture.

Assam under the provisions of India Council Act, 1861 did not have its own democratic institution but was tagged with East Bengal in 1905 and the Institution was then called “Legislative Council of Eastern Bengal and Assam”, which started functioning from December 18, 1906. In 1909, the Council had a strength of 40 members and out of 40 seats, Assam was allotted 5 seats. In 1912 Assam was reconstituted into a Chief Commissioners’ province.

In the year 1913, after Assam was granted a Legislative Council under the Government of India Act. 1909, the Assam Legislative Council came into being with a strength of 34 members of which 13 were nominated by the Chief Commissioner and 21 were elected by the people. The Legislative Council of Assam first met on 6th January, 1913 at 11 a.m. at Shillong, which was presided over by Sir Archdale Easle, the Chief Commissioner of Assam.

Under the Government of India Act. 1919, the strength of the Legislative Council was raised to 53 members with effect from Ist April, 1921 of which 41 were elected members and the remaining 12 were nominated.

The Government of India Act, 1935 was adopted by the British Parliament on 2nd August, 1935 and was implemented in 1937. The Government of India Act 1935 made provisions for a Legislative Assembly in each province and as a result the Legislature in Assam became bicameral. The Assam Legislative Assembly had the strength of 108 members and all of them were elected members. the strength of the Legislative Council (Upper House) was not less than 21 and not more than 22 members.

After the partition of India, Sylhet district of Assam was transferred to the then East Pakistan by a referendum and the strength of the Assembly was reduced to 71. However, after Independence, the strength of members were again raised to 108. The bicameral Assam Legislative Assembly became unicameral with the abolition of the Assam Legislative Council in 1947. In the years that followed, Assam was truncated to several smaller states.

In 1963, Nagaland came into being as a separate State. With the passing of North Eastern (Reorganization Areas) Act in 1971 by the Parliament, Meghalaya became a full- fledged state.

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Subsequently, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh also followed suit. After the creation of Meghalaya as a separate state, Shillong continued to be the joint capital of both Assam and Meghalaya. However, in 1972, the Government of Assam decided to shift the Capital to Dispur, Guwahati. Accordingly, the first sitting of the Budget Session of the Assam Legislative Assembly was held at the temporary capital at Dispur on the 16th March, 1973.

With the changing geographical boundaries together with the shifts in the population graph of Assam, the strength of members of the Assam Legislative Assembly has fluctuated during the last fifty odd years. In 1952-57 it was 108, reaching still lower to 105 in 1957-62 (the Second Assembly) and then to 114 in 1967-72 (the third Assembly) until it reached a strength of 126 members in 1972-78 (the fifth Assembly) and it has continued to maintain that figure till the 11th Assembly.

Although the Article 172 provides the duration of State Legislative Assembly as 5 years due to the imposition of National Emergency in 1975 the fifth Assam Assembly lasted for 6 years.

Late Babu Basanta Kumar Das was the first Speaker of the Assam Legislative Assembly.

At present, The Assam Legislative Assembly is the unicameral legislature of the Indian state of Assam. It is housed in Guwahati, the capital city of Assam, geographically situated in present Western Assam region. The Legislative Assembly comprises 126 Members of Legislative Assembly, directly elected from single-seat constituencies. Its term is five years, unless sooner dissolved.

Speaker of the Assembly

The Office of the Speaker of Legislative Assembly is a constitutional one. Under Article 178 of the Indian Constitution every Legislative Assembly of a State shall, choose one of its Members as Speaker.

The powers and duties of the Speaker have been laid down in the rules of the Legislative Assembly and to some extent in the Constitution. The Speaker is the principal spokesman of the House. He represents its collective voice and is its sole representative to the world. Communications from the Governor to the House are made through the Speaker. Similarly communications to the Governor are made through the Speaker in the form of a formal address after a motion has been made and carried by the House.

As the representative of the House, the Speaker communicates the decisions of the House to the authorities concerned, requiring them to comply with the terms of such decisions. Similarly, he communicates to the House letters and documents addressed to him. He also issues warrants to execute the orders of the House, where necessary.

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The Speaker regulates the debates and proceedings of the House. He determines the order of the Government and other Business in the House. He has the power to recognize parties and groups in the House. The Speaker decides the admissibility of Questions as per the guiding principles laid down in the Rules. The Speaker decides on the admissibility of resolutions and motions. The consent of the Speaker is necessary for the presentation of petitions to the House.

It is the Speaker who determines what matters are ‘money’ matters as these fall within the exclusive jurisdiction of the Legislative Assembly. If the Speaker certifies a Bill as a Money Bill, his decision is final. Under the Constitution, the Speaker exercises only a casting vote in the case of equality of votes in any matter.

The Speaker holds the Office from the date of his election till immediately before the first meeting of the Legislative Assembly after the dissolution of the one to which he was elected, unless he ceases to be a member by any of the reasons specified in Article 179 of the Indian Constitution.

Constitutional Provisions:

Article 178 of Indian constitution deals with the officers of the state legislature. Accordingly, “Every Legislative Assembly of a State shall, as soon as may be, choose two members of the Assembly to be respectively Speaker and Deputy Speaker thereof and, so often as the office of Speaker or Deputy Speaker becomes vacant, the Assembly shall choose another member to be Speaker or Deputy Speaker, as the case may be.”

Article 179 deals with Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker. Accordingly,

A member holding office as Speaker or Deputy Speaker of an Assembly—

(a) shall vacate his office if he ceases to be a member of the Assembly;

(b) may at any time by writing under his hand addressed, if such member is the Speaker, to the Deputy Speaker, and if such member is the Deputy Speaker, to the Speaker, resign his office; and

(c) may be removed from his office by a resolution of the Assembly passed by a majority of all the then members of the Assembly:

Provided that no resolution for the purpose of clause (c) shall be moved unless at least fourteen days’ notice has been given of the intention to move the resolution: Provided further that, whenever the Assembly is dissolved, the Speaker shall not vacate his office until immediately before the first meeting of the Assembly after the dissolution.

Article 187 deals with Secretariat of State Legislature. Accordingly,

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(1) The House or each House of the Legislature of a State shall have a separate secretarial staff:

Provided that nothing in this clause shall, in the case of the Legislature of a State having a Legislative Council, be construed as preventing the creation of posts common to both Houses of such Legislature.

(2) The Legislature of a State may by law regulate the recruitment, and the conditions of service of persons appointed, to the secretarial staff of the House or Houses of the Legislature of the State.

(3) Until provision is made by the Legislature of the State under clause (2), the Governor may, after consultation with the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly or the Chairman of the Legislative Council, as the case may be, make rules regulating the recruitment, and the conditions of service of persons appointed, to the secretarial staff of the Assembly or the Council, and any rules so made shall have effect subject to the provisions of any law made under the said clause.

Deputy Speaker

Under Article 178 of the Indian Constitution, the Legislative Assembly shall choose one of its members as Deputy Speaker. The date of holding the election to the office of the Deputy Speaker is fixed by the Speaker of the House. The procedure of the election of the Deputy Speaker is same as that of the Speaker, the Deputy Speaker is elected from among the members of the Legislative Assembly.

In the absence of the Speaker or when the Office of the Speaker is vacant, the duties of the Speaker are performed by the Deputy Speaker. When the Deputy Speaker presides over a sitting of the Legislative Assembly, he has the same powers as the Speaker.

The Deputy Speaker holds office till the dissolution of the Legislative Assembly, unless he ceases to be a member of the Legislative Assembly for any reasons specified in Article 179 of the Indian Constitution.

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List of the Speakers of the Assam Legislative Assembly

Assam Province

Name ——————Took office —————– Left office

1 Babu Basanta Kumar Das—7 April 1937——11 March 1946

2 Debeswar Sarmah ……12 March 1946 …..10 October 1947

3 Laksheswar Borooah….5 November 1947………. 3 March 1952

Assam

Name……………………Took office…………… Left office

Kuladhar Chaliha …….5 March 1952 …….7 June 1957

Devakanta Barua ……….8 June 1957 ………15 September 1959

Mahendra Mohan Choudhury…….. 9 December 1959 ………19 March 1967

Hareswar Goswami ………….20 March 1967 ………..10 May 1968

Mahi Kanta Das …………..27 August 1968 …………21 March 1972

Ramesh Chandra Barooah ……….22 March 1972 ……………20 March 1978

Jogendra Nath Hazarika ………..21 March 1978 ………..4 September 1979

Sheikh Chand Mohammad ……7 November 1979………7 January 1986

Pulakesh Barua ………9 January 1986 ………….27 July 1991

Jiba Kanta Gogoi ……………29 July 1991 …………9 December 1992

Debesh Chandra Chakravorty….. 21 December 1992 ……..11 June 1996

Ganesh Kutum …………12 June 1996 ………..24 May 2001

Prithibi Majhi ………30 May 2001 ……….19 May 2006

Tanka Bahadur Rai …………29 May 2006 ………….19 May 2011

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ranab Kumar Gogoi …………6 June 2011 ……….19 May 2016

Ranjit Kumar Das ……….1 June 2016……..30 January 2017

Hitendra Nath Goswami………..30 January 2017 ………..20 May 2021

Biswajit Daimary …………21 May 2021 ………….Present

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High Court

The highest judicial court in a state is the High Court. It is termed as the second- highest in the country after the Supreme Court of India. Currently, India has 25 High Courts established in different states of the country.

High Court Jurisdiction

The High Court is the highest court of appeal in the state vested with the power to interpret the Constitution. It is the protector of the Fundamental Rights of the citizens. Besides, it has supervisory and consultative roles. However, the Constitution does not contain detailed provisions with regard to the jurisdiction and powers of a high court.

At present, the following jurisdictions are enjoyed by a High Court-

Original jurisdiction

Writ jurisdiction

Appellate jurisdiction

Supervisory jurisdiction

Control over subordinate courts

A court of record

Power of judicial review

The Jurisdiction of High court are as mentioned below –

Original Jurisdiction – In such kind of cases the applicant can directly go to the High Court and does not require to raise an appeal. It is mostly applicable for cases related to the State Legislative Assembly, marriages, enforcement of fundamental rights and transfer cases from other courts.

Power of Superintendence – It a special power enjoyed only by High Court and no other subordinate court has this power of superintendence. Under this, the High Court holds the right to order its subordinate offices and courts the way of maintaining records, prescribe rules for holding proceedings in the court and also settle the fees paid to sheriff clerks, officers and legal practitioners.

Court of Record – It involves recording the judgments, proceedings and acts of high courts for perpetual memory. These records cannot be further questioned in any court. It has the power to punish for contempt of itself.

Control over Subordinate Courts – This is an extension of the supervisory and appellate jurisdiction. It states that the High Court can withdraw a case pending before any subordinate court if it involves the substantial question of law. The case can be disposed of itself or solve the question of law and return back to the same court.

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Appellate Jurisdiction – This is for cases where people have risen a complaint about a review of the judgement given by the district level or subordinate court of that territory. This power is further divided into two categories:

Civil Jurisdiction – this includes orders and judgements of the district court, civil district court and subordinate court
Criminal Jurisdiction – this includes judgements and orders of the sessions court and additional sessions court.

Power of Judicial Review – This power of High Court includes the power to examine the constitutionality of legislative and executive orders of both central and state government. It is to be noted that the word judicial review is nowhere mentioned in our constitution but the Article 13 and 226 explicitly provide High Court with this power.

Writ Jurisdiction of High Court – Article 226 of the Constitution empowers a high court to issue writs including habeas corpus, mandamus, certiorari, prohibition, and quo warrento for the enforcement of the fundamental rights of the citizens and for any other purpose. Read in detail about the following

Habeas Corpus

Writ of Mandamus

The phrase ‘for any other purpose’ refers to the enforcement of an ordinary legal right. The high court can issue writs to any person, authority and government not only within its territorial jurisdiction but also outside its territorial jurisdiction if the cause of action arises within its territorial jurisdiction (15th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1963).

In the Chandra Kumar case (1997), the Supreme Court ruled that the writ jurisdiction of both the high court and the Supreme Court constitute a part of the basic structure of the Constitution. Hence, it cannot be ousted or excluded even by way of an amendment to the Constitution.

In Shah Faesal’s Case, his case is justified because the cause of action happened in Delhi and then he was taken to outside the territory of Delhi.

How is a High Court Judge Appointed?

A High Court Judge is appointed by the President of India. He is solely responsible for the appointment of any judge in a High Court. However, he may consult the Governor of the State, the acting Chief Justice of India and Chief Justice of that particular state’s High Court.

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A High Court judge is also liable to get transferred to other High Courts. This decision is entirely dependent on the Chief Justice of India. Transfer of judges is done with an aim to ensure proper and just trial for every case fought in the court of law.

Eligibility Criteria for High Court Judge

There are certain eligibility criteria that need to be fulfilled to be appointed as a judge in any High court in India. Given below are the set of eligibility criteria mandatory for the appointment of High Court judges:

Any of the given qualifications must be fulfilled:

The person should have been a Barrister for more than five years
Has been a civil servant for over 10 years along with serving the Zila court for at least 3 years
A person who has been a pleader for over 10 years in any High Court.

No judge should be of more than 62 years of age

The law states that every state must have a separate High Court, however, there still are certain states that do not have an individual High Court. For example – both Punjab and Haryana come under the jurisdiction of Punjab High Court sitting at Chandigarh. Besides, there is a common High Court for seven states – Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram.

Gauhati High Court

After Indian independence, the Assam Legislative Assembly adopted a resolution on 9 September 1947 that a High Court be established for the Province of Assam.

It was inaugurated on 5 April 1948 by H. J. Kania, the Chief Justice of India. Sir R.F. Lodge was sworn in as the first Chief Justice of the Assam High Court on the same day. The Assam High Court initially had its sittings at Shillong but shifted to Guwahati on 14 August 1948.

Later, when Nagaland state was created on 1 December 1963, the Assam High Court was renamed as the High Court of Assam and Nagaland.

On re-organization of the northeastern region of India by the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971, the High Court of Assam and Nagaland was abolished with effect from 21 January 1972 by section 28(1)(a) of the Act. The Courts of Judicial Commissioners for Manipur and Tripura, which were functioning as high courts, were also abolished by section 30(1) of the Act. In place of these three entities, a common high court for five states, named Gauhati High Court, was established by section 28(1)(b) of the Act.

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This High Court was given jurisdiction over the then union territories of Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram by section 32 of the Act.

After Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura got its High Court, the Gauhati High Court ceased its jurisdiction in these three states.

Common High Court for the State of Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh

With the enactment of the State of Mizoram Act, 1986 (Act 34 of 1986) and the State of Arunachal Pradesh Act, 1986 (Act 69 of 1986), the States of Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh attained statehood on 20.2.1987. By the State of Mizoram Act, 1986, from the appointed day, common High Court for the States of Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura and Mizoram called the High Court of Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura and Mizoram came into being.

Under the State of Arunachal Pradesh Act, 1986, from the appointed day, ie, 20.2.1987, a common High Court for the State of Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh came into being.

The Principal Seat of the Gauhati High Court is at Guwahati, Assam. Apart from the Principal Seat, the High Court has 3 (three) outlying Benches, viz, Kohima Bench for the State of Nagaland (established on 1.12.1972), Aizawl Bench for the State of Mizoram (established on 5.7.90) and Itanagar Bench for the State of Arunachal Pradesh (established on 12.8.2000). The Gauhati High Court occupied a unique position of being a common High Court of seven States of North East India, till 23.03.2013, the date of the functioning of separate High Courts in Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura.

The principal seat of the Gauhati High Court is at Guwahati in Assam. The court has 3 outlying benches. These are:

The Kohima bench for Nagaland state (established on 1 December 1972)
The Aizawl bench for Mizoram state (established on 5 July 1990)
The Itanagar bench for Arunachal Pradesh state (established on 12 August 2000)

The Ethnic Angle

The Gauhati High Court administers Justice in an area having enormous variations. Geographically, it is an assortment of hills and valleys. Ethnically, it is an extraordinary mosaic. The legal and judicial scenario is more varied. Divergent laws govern the people of the region. The indigenous inhabitants of the hill areas are primarily adapted to the conciliatory process rather than the adversary system. Some of the customary practices for settlement of disputes practiced in this area are not only expeditious and lasting, but far more efficacious than the system followed in the supposedly advanced areas.

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The laws applicable to different areas may vary, but the entire area is administered by a common High Court. The High Court is a unique one, whereby a single institution exercises jurisdiction throughout the entire North East region. When the Constitution of India came into force under the provisions of Sixth Schedule to the Constitution, District Council Courts were established in the Tribal Areas and as a result, the jurisdiction of the Assam High Court was extended to the Tribal Area vide Assam High Court (Jurisdiction over District Council Courts) Order 1954.

Assam Public Service Commission

Historical Perspective

The Assam Public Service Commission came into existence on 1st April, 1937 in accordance with the provision of the Govt. of India Act, 1935 with Mr James Hezelett, a retired ICS officer from London, as its first Chairman.

(Image)

Till framing a new regulation in 1951, five more officers mostly retired ICS officer, held the office of the Chairman for different period after Mr James Hezelett.

On India becoming Republic, the regulations of the Commission were framed by the Governor of Assam in exercise of the powers conferred by Article 318 of the Constitution of India and the same came into force w.e.f. 1st September 1951. Also in the same year the Assam Public Service Commission (Limitation of Functions) Regulation was promulgated in exercise of the powers conferred by the provision of clause II of Article 320 of the Constitution.

Shri Kameswar Das, an educationist of repute of Assam, was the first non-official Chairman of the Commission after promulgation of the APSC Regulations 1951. He held the office till July 1952.

Composition of the Commission:

The composition of the Commission had undergone changes several times since its inception. Against the number of One Chairman and two Members in 1937-1951, it was one Chairman and two/three Members in 1951-1986, one Chairman and six Members in 1986-91, one Chairman and ten Members in 1991 and lastly, by an amendment of 2005, the strength of the Commission was fixed at seven consisting of one Chairman and six Members.

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Vision and Mission

To select suitable candidates possessing the requisite educational qualifications, skills and motivation to serve the people of Assam for the assigned government jobs through a transparent, fair, scintific and time-bound recruitment process thereby making quality and integrity the defining characteristics of the personnel selected.

Duties and Functions

The Assam Public Service Commission has to discharge the duties and functions as specified in its Regulations. However, as laid down in Article 320 of the Constitution, the prime duties and functions of the Commission are:

To recommend candidates for Direct Recruitment to the various services of the State Government;
To advise the Government on the principles to be followed to assess the suitability of the officers for promotion;
To advise the Govt. on all disciplinary matters affecting the person serving under the Government within the purview of the Commission;
To advise the Government on all matters relating to framing of Recruitment Rules/Draft Service Rules of different departments of the Government;
To advise the Government relating to the method of recruitment to Civil Services;
To advise the Government on matters relating to protection and fixation of pay, in respect of Government servants, who were initially appointed as per recommendation of the Commission;
To conduct Departmental examinations for Government services.

Constitutional Provision

The Government of India Act, 1935 provided for the establishment of a state public service commission at the provincial level. Later, it was given constitutional status by the constitution of India.

Parallel to the Union Public Service Commission in the center, the State Public Service Commission works at the state level. The same set of Articles (315 to 323 in Part XIV) of the Constitution also deals with the composition, appointment, and removal of members, power and functions, and independence of a State Public Service Commission.

The important articles related to State Public Service Commission are mentioned below:

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Article No. Subject-Matter

315 Provision of UPSC for union and SPSC for states.

216 Appointment and term of service for the chairman and members.

317 Removal and suspension of the member.

320 Functions of PSC.

321 Power to extend functions of PSC.

322 Expenses of PSC.

323 Reports of Public Service Commission.

Process of appointment and Eligibility of members

The Chairman and other members of the SPSC are appointed by the Governor of the State.

The Governor of State are empowered by the Constitution of India to determine the conditions of service of the Chairman and other members of the State Public Service Commission

A member of the SPSC shall hold office for a term of six years or till the age of 62 years, whichever is earlier

Any person who has once held the office as a member of a Public Service Commission is ineligible for reappointment to that office.

The person to be appointed as the members of the and State Public Service Commissions should not hold any office of profit under the central or the state government.

Process of Appointment of chairman and acting chairman

The governor can appoint one of the members of the S.P.S.C. as an acting chairman if any of the following conditions prevail:

The office of the chairman of the commission becomes vacant;

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The chairman of the commission, due to absence or for any other reason, is unable to perform the duties of his office.

The acting chairman will perform the functions of the chairman until the chairman returns to its office.

Provisions related to Removal

Article 317 says that the members of both public service commission can be removed by the President before the expiry of their term if any of the following four circumstances exist:

The member of the commission goes bankrupt(insolvent).

The member of the commission engages in any paid employment outside the official duties.

The member of the commission becomes mentally or bodily infirm.

For misbehaviour on the part of the member of the commission.

In cases of misbehaviour, the matter is enquired by the Supreme Court, if the member

is found guilty, the President can remove him/her from his membership of the commission. The decision of the Supreme Court is binding on the President in such matters.

The President can suspend the members of the Union Public Service Commission during the period when the matter is being inquired by the Supreme Court. Whereas in the case of the State Public Service Commission, this power to suspend the member is vested in the Governor of the State.

Resignation

A member of a State Public Service Commission may resign from his/her office by submitting the written resignation to the Governor of the State.

Provisions related to Reporting

Article 323 mandates that the State Public Service Commission will submit its annual report of its performance to the Governor.

Upon receipt of such a report, the Governor shall present it to both the houses of the legislature (if the legislature is bicameral), together with a memorandum, explaining the reasons as to why the advice of the Commission was not accepted by him.

Some Recent issues with the State Public Service Commission

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Of late there are instances of corruption in recruitment by public service commissions. Opening of the VYAPAM scam in recent times is a case in point which proves the existence of malpractices in Government Job recruitments.

Many a time it is alleged politicians try to manipulate the results of public service exams.

Use of Money power to get a job is also observed in numerous cases.

Due to existence of instances of corruption and malpractices recruitment process have been halted and many a time cancelled by Courts.

Steps to make the system efficient

Exams should be conducted at regular intervals and results declaration be done as soon as possible without any delay.

Efforts should be made to minimise government interference in the recruitment process, Exams should be conducted as scheduled.

To ensure right candidates are writing the exam, fingerprints should be taken both at time of filing of application and conduction of exam.

Good practices of UPSC can be replicated by other service commissions to maintain transparency and trust.

The Public Service Commissions form a basic structure that ensures and protects the meritorious nature of the Indian civil services. Its transparent and impartial functioning is nt and impartial functioning is very essential to secure the democratic fabric of the country.

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District Administration of Assam

The State of Assam is divided into 34 Administrative Districts. The districts are demarcated on the basis of the features such as the rivers, hills, forests, etc.

On 8 August 2020 The Assam cabinet approved a proposal to make Bajali (curved out of Barpeta) the 34th full-fledged district of Assam.

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(List od Districts of Assam-Copy from Quiz)

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Creation of New Districts:

Before the Independence in 1947, Assam had 13 districts. The districts were Cachar, Darrang, Goalpara, Kamrup, Lakhimpur, Nagaon, Sivasagar, Jayantia parganas, Garo hills, Lushai hills, Naga hills, Sylhet and NEFA.

On 17 November 1951, United Mikir and North Cachar Hills district curved out of Golaghat, Nagaon, Cachar, Jayantia and Naga hills districts.

On 2 February 1970, Mikir Hills district curved out of North Cachar Hills.

In 1976, Dibrugarh district curved out of Lakhimpur and the Name of Mikir Hills district changed to Karbi Anglong district.

In 1983, Barpeta district curved out of Kamrup; Sonitpur district curved out of Darrang; Jorhat district curved out of Sibsagar, Dhubri district and Kokrajhar district curved out of Goalpara; Karimganj district curved out of Cachar.

On 14 August 1985, Nalbari district curved out of Kamrup.

On 15 August 1987, Golaghat district curved out of Sibsagar.

In 1989, Hailakandi district curved out of Cachar, Marigaon district curved out Nagaon, Bongaigaon district curved out of Goalpara and Kokrajhar, Tinsukia district curved out of Dibrugarh and Dhemaji district curved out of Lakhimpur.

On 3 February 2003, Kamrup Metropolitan district curved out of Kamrup.

On 1 June 2004, Baksa district curved out of Barpeta, Nalbari, and Kamrup; on 4 June, Chirang district curved out of Barpeta, Bongaigaon and Kokrajhar and On 14 June, Udalguri district curved out of Darrang and Sonitpur; along with Kokrajhar district formed BTAD.

On 1 April 2010, Name of North Cachar Hills district changed to Dima Hasao.

On 15 August 2015, Tarun Gogoi, the Chief Minister of Assam, announced the formation of five new districts in the state, taking the total number from 27 to 32. The five new districts are the following: Biswanath (carved out of Sonitpur); Charaideo (carved out of Sivasagar); Hojai (carved out of Nagaon); South Salmara-Mankachar (carved out of Dhubri); West Karbi Anglong (carved out of Karbi Anglong).

On 26 January 2016, 2 more districts were announced, but on 7 October 2016, the Govt. has withdrawn district status of East Kamrup and South Kamrup due to inadequate infrastructure. The two sub-divisions of East Kamrup district – viz. Chandrapur and Sonapur, is now part of Kamrup Metropolitan district. The sub-divisions of South Kamrup district is now part of Kamrup Rural district.

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On 27 June 2016, one more district was announced by Sarbananda Sonowal, taking the total number from 32 to 33 which is Majuli (carved out of the Northern parts of Jorhat). It is the first river island district of India.

On 8 August 2020 The Assam cabinet approved a proposal to make Bajali (curved out of Barpeta) the 34th full-fledged district of Assam.

The Districts of Assam are further placed under five Regional Divisions. The list of Divisions is as given below:

Division Name …….Divisional Office— Districts

Barak Valley ……Silchar……. Cachar, Hailakandi, and Karimganj

Central Assam ………Nagaon…… Dima Hasao, Hojai, East Karbi Anglong, West Karbi Anglong, Morigaon, and Nagaon

Lower Assam ……..Guwahati… Baksa, Barpeta, Bongaigaon, Chirang, Dhubri, Goalpara, Nalbari, Kamrup Metropolitan, Kamrup Rural, Kokrajhar, and South Salmara-Mankachar

North Assam ……..Tezpur…. Biswanath, Darrang, Sonitpur, and Udalguri

Upper Assam ………Jorhat….. Charaideo, Dhemaji, Dibrugarh, Golaghat, Jor hat, Lakhimpur, Majuli Sivasagar, and Tinsukia

Each district is headed by the Deputy Commissioner. Generally, an officer belonging to the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) becomes the Deputy Commissioner but occasionally officers belonging to the Assam Civil Service (ACS) too get appointed. The Deputy Commissioner is assisted by a number of officials belonging to different wings of the administrative services of the state like Additional Deputy Commissioner, Sub-divisional Officers, Extra Assistant Commissioners and others.

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The Deputy Commissioner also acts as the Collector in case of Revenue matters, as District Magistrate in case of maintenance of Law and Order and General Administration, as District Election Officer in case of conduct of Election and so on.

Revenue Administration involves collection and fixing of land revenue, registration, mutation and overall management in regard to land matters – private and public. Besides the Revenue Branch of the Deputy Commissioner’s Office, which is looked after by the Additional Deputy Commissioner (Revenue), there are 11 outlying Revenue Circles in the district, supervised by Circle Officers.

As head of the District Administration, the Deputy Commissioner is responsible for all- round developmental activities in the district under various programmes such as MP’s Local Area Fund (MPLAD), MLA’s fund, Untied Fund, Sub-divisional Plan Scheme Fund, Border Area Development Fund and so on.

The Deputy Commissioner is aided by the Additional Deputy Magistrates (ADM), Sub- Divisional Magistrates (SDM) and Executive Magistrates (EM) for maintenance of Law & Order in the districts. The Circle Officers of the Circles also function as Executive Magistrates and are responsible for maintenance of Law & Order in their respective circle areas.

The District Magistrate and other Magistrates take necessary assistance from the Police Department when such necessity arises. The District Police Administration is headed by the Superintendent of Police.

Panchayati Raj in Assam

Panchayati Raj Institutions

Assam has a very strong historical background of local self government. The villages in Assam had a strong Panchayat in different names or forms since long past. Assam was one of the pioneer States in India to enact Panchayat Act and establish Panchayati Raj in the State when the Assam Rural Panchayat Act, 1948 was passed. This Act was amended and replaced by the Assam Panchayat Act, 1959, the Assam Panchayati Raj Act, 1972, the Assam Panchayati Raj Act, 1986 and finally the Assam Panchayat Act, 1994 which incorporated the provisions of the 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 of the Constitution of India. The Assam Panchayat Act, 1994 received the assent of the Governor on the 22nd April 1994 and elections were held in October 1996, for establishing a three-tier Panchayati Raj system in the State at the village, intermediate and district level.

The PRIS in Assam have a three-tier system. Gaon Panchayats (GPs) at the village level are the key units, while the middle level comprises of Anchalik Panchayat (AP) at the block level, and Zilla Parishads (ZPs) at the apex level.

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As a matter of fact, Anchalik Panchayats are the conduits through which most of the funds for rural development flow to Gram Panchayats. Now development funds for many schemes are directly channelized by the central and state governments to Gram Panchayats and Zilla Parishads at the district level.

The apex PRI tier is responsible for preparing an integrated annual plan for the district for rural as well as urban areas through District Planning Committees (DPCs). But so far this role has been performed by various departments because of lack of preparedness, awareness, and understanding regarding their prime role in preparing annual plans of development.

Panchayati Raj Institutions in Assam

Level …….Name of PRI ……..Numbers

District Panchayat …….Zilla Parishad ……..21

Intermediate Panchayat ………Anchalik Panchayat ……….185

Village Panchayat ………Gaon Panchayat ……….2201

Total number of Elected Representatives and Chairpersons in the State

Panchayat……..Representatives………. Chairpersons

Zlla Parishad……..420 ……21

Anchalik Panchayat …..2201 …….185

Gaon Panchayat ……….24222 ……..2201

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Assam Human Rights Commission

The State Human Rights Commission for Assam was constituted by the Government in 1996 to address the public grievances relating to Human Rights violation as per Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.

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Genesis of Human Rights:

All human beings, for the simple reason that they belong to human kind, are entitled to enjoy certain rights from the cradle to the grave. These rights are their birth rights and, therefore, called natural rights. These are the basic entitlements of human beings without which life is not worth living, satisfying, enjoyable and meaningful.

Granting of the Magna Carta by King John of England in 1215 followed by the signing of petitions of rights by the Charles-I of England in 1628, the Bill of Rights by William- III and Queen Mary of England in 1689 the Declaration of Independence of America in 1776 and the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen by the General Assembly of France in 1789 are some of the important documents in the declaration and assertion of human rights and can be regarded as significant milestones at the different stages of our struggle for achievement of human rights.

The General Assembly of the United Nations held at Paris adopted the historic document called the “Universal Declaration of Human rights” on the 10th of December, 1948 embodying thirty articles on civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. The Declaration re-affirms that all persons must be able to enjoy their human rights in all situations and under all circumstances. The Declaration was followed by two other significant international instruments adopted in 1966, namely (i) the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and (ii) the International Covenants on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and these Instruments together with Universal Declaration of Human rights formed the International Bill of Rights.

The makers of the Indian Constitution while drafting the Constitution had included in it the rights embodied in the Universal Declaration of Human rights in two separate Parts, namely Part III and Part IV of the Constitution. The Civil and Political Rights have been included as Fundamental Rights in Part III while Part IV of the Constitution contains the economic, social and cultural rights as “Directive Principles of State Policy”.

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For better protection of human rights and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto the Government of India by an Ordinance provided for the constitution of the National Human rights Commission, the State Human rights Commission in States and Human rights Courts w.e.f. 28th September, 1993. This Ordinance was replaced by the Parliament of India by Act No.10 of 1994 on 8th January, 1994 by the Protection of Human Rights Act. 1993 which came into force retrospectively on 28th day of September, 1993.

Accordingly, the National Human Rights Commission was constituted in the year 1993 and, thereafter, the States Human rights Commission were constituted in several States.

The Assam Human rights Commission was constituted on 19th March, 1996. The headquarters of the Commission is located at Guwahati.

Overview of the State Human Rights Commission

The Protection of Human Rights Act of 1993 provides for the creation of not only the National Human Rights Commission but also a State Human Rights Commission at the State Level.

A State Human Rights Commission can inquire into violation of human rights only in respect of subjects mentioned in the State List (List-II) and the Concurrent List (List-III) of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India.

Composition of the States Human Rights Commission

The State Human Rights Commission is a multi-member body consisting of a chairperson and two members. The chairperson should be a retired Chief Justice or a Judge of a High Court and members should be serving or retired judge of a High Court or a District Judge with a minimum of seven years experience as District Judge and a person having knowledge or practical experience with respect to human rights.

The Chairperson and members are appointed by the Governor on the recommendations of a committee consisting of the chief ministers as its head, the speaker of the Legislative Assembly.

The chairperson and members hold office for a term of three years or until they attain the age of 70 years, whichever comes first.

Although the chairperson and members of a State Human Rights Commission are appointed by the governor they can only be removed by the President (and not by the Governor).

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The Salaries, allowances and other conditions of service of the chairperson or a member are determined by the state government. But they cannot be varied to his disadvantage after his appointment.

The functions of the States Human Rights Commission are as follows:

To inquire into any violation of human rights or negligence in the prevention of such violation by a public servant, either suo motu or on a petition presented to it or on an order of a court.
To intervene in any proceedings involve allegations of violation of human rights pending before a court.
To visit jails and detention places to study the living condition of inmates and make recommendations thereon.
To review the constitutional and other legal safeguards for the protection of human rights and recommend measures for their effective implementation.
To review the factors including acts of terrorism that inhibit the enjoyment of human rights and recommend remedial measures.
To undertake and promote research in the field of human rights.
To spread human rights literacy among the people and promote awareness of the safeguards available for the protection of these rights.

Working of the States Human Rights Commission

The Commission is vested with the power to regulate its own procedure. It has all the powers of a civil court and its proceedings have a judicial character. It may call for information or report from the state government or any other authority subordinate hitherto.

The Commission is not empowered to inquire into any matter after the expiry of one year from the date on which the act constituting violation of human rights is alleged to have been committed. In other words, it can look into a matter within one year of its occurrence.

The Commission may take any of the following steps during or upon the completion of an inquiry:

It may recommend the state government or authority to make payment of compensation or damages to the victim.
It may recommend to the state government or authority the initiation of proceedings for prosecution or any other action against the state government.

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It may recommend the state government or authority for the grant of immediate interim relief to the victim.
It may approach the Supreme Court or state high court for the necessary direction, order or writs.

The Commission submits its annual or special reports to the state government. These reports are laid before the state legislature, along with a memorandum of action taken on the recommendations of the Commission and the reasons for non-acceptance of any of such recommendations.

Human Rights Courts

The Protection of Human Rights Act (1993) also provides for the establishment of a Human Rights Court in every district for the speedy trial of violation of human rights.

These courts can be set up by the state government only with the occurrence of the Chief Justice of the High Court of that state.

For every Human Rights Court, the state government specifies a public prosecutor or appoints an advocate (who has practiced as a special prosecutor)

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State Election Commission

The State Election Commission, Assam was constituted in May, 1994 under provision of the Article 243K and 243 ZA of the Constitution of India, with a view to perform responsibilities viz. superintendence, direction and control of preparation of Electoral Rolls for and conduct of all elections to the Panchayats and Municipalities and the State Election.

Commission shall be consist of a State Election Commissioner to be appointed by the respective Governor of a State. Since then the State Election Commission, Assam has been discharging its constitutional responsibilities by holding elections to the Panchayats and Municipalities of the State.

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The State Election Commission, Assam has been also entrusted by the State Govt. to conduct election including preparation of Electoral Rolls in case of another 9 (nine) local bodies in addition to the above mentioned 2 (two) constitutionally obligated elections. These are viz.

Bodoland Territorial Council
NC Hills Autonomous Council 3.Karbi Anglong Autonomous Council
Mising Autonomous Council
Sonowal Kachari Autonomous Council
Rabha Hasong Autonomous Council
Deori Autonomous Council
Thengal Kachari Autonomous Council
Tiwa Autonomous Council

Thus, the State Election Commission has to discharge its responsibilities in holding election of a total no. of 11 Local Bodies of the State, as above mentioned.

At present the office of the State Election Commission, Assam has been functioning from Dispur, Guwahati.

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The present State Election Commissioner Shri Alok Kumar, IAS (Retd.) who has taken over charges on 1st January, 2020 is the 8th incumbent in the list of State Election Commissioners. Earlier State Election Commissioners were: –

SI No…..Name of Commissioner….From Date ………To Date

Late T. L. Barua, IAS (Retd.) …..05.07.1994 ……..31.07.1997

Sri D. C. Borthakur, IAS (Retd.) ……..01.08.1997………30.04.1999

Sri Abdul Malik, IAS (Retd.) …….14.15.1999………..30.04.2001

Late N. G. Barua, IAS (Retd.) ……….27.18.2001………31.12.2005

Sri C. K. Sarma, IAS (Retd.) ………01.03.2006……31.01.2009

Sri Biren Dutta, IAS (Retd.) ………04.06.2009………..30.03.2014

Sri H. N. Bora, IAS (Retd.) ……..01.10.2014 ……….30.09.2019

Constitutional Provisions:

The Constitution of India vests in the State Election Commission, consisting of a State Election Commissioner, the superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of electoral rolls for, and the conduct of all elections to the Panchayats and the Municipalities (Articles 243K, 243ZA).

The State Election Commissioner is appointed by the Governor.

Mission of Assam State Election Commission:

Mission of the State Election Commission is to conduct free, fair & regular election to the urban local bodies and offices under Panchayati Raj Institutions which are constitutional obligation of the State Election Commission. The State Election Commission is also to perform its entrusted responsibility by the State Government in respect of nine (9) other local bodies viz. Autonomous Council. The State Election Commission endeavors to promote healthy democratic value of the grass root level by holding timely, free & fair elections to various local bodies & creating awareness among the electorate for participating in the voting process as dutiful citizen of the country.

Vision of Assam State Election Commission:

To conduct elections to local bodies entrusted by the Constitution as well as by the State Govt. under statutes in a free and fair manner so that grassroot growth of democratic institution is facilitated & strengthened, promote atmosphere for healthy growth of democratic value in the State.

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State Election Commissions (SECs)

The State Election Commission has been entrusted with the function of conducting free, fair and impartial elections to the local bodies in the state.

Article 243K(1): It states that the superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of electoral rolls for, and the conduct of, all elections to the Panchayats (Municipalities under Article 243ZA) shall be vested in a State Election Commission consisting of a State Election Commissioner to be appointed by the Governor.

Article 243K(2): It states that the tenure and appointment will be directed as per the law made by the state legislature. However, State Election Commissioner shall not be removed from his/her office except in like manner and on the like grounds as a Judge of a High Court.

Challenges with the State Election Commissions

Lack of autonomy in SECS: Despite the provisions for independence of SECS, they are not functioning as an autonomous institution. For example, In 2008 the then state election commissioner of Maharastra asserted that he should have the power to hold elections to the offices of mayor, deputy mayor, and sarpanch offices. But the State assembly got him arrested for the breach of privilege and sent him to jail for two days.
Lack of Constitutional safeguard for SECs: The manner of removal of SECs has been flouted by the State governments by alternative methods such as restricting the terms and conditions etc. This is evident in the Aparmita Prasad Singh vs. State of U.P. case.
No uniformity of service conditions for SECS: Since the Constitution vest the power to determine the service conditions on State legislatures, the service conditions are not uniform across the country.

Impact of the issues in State Election Commission

Functions of Municipalities and Panchayats: The court in the Kishan Singh Tomar case observed that due to various problems in the State Election Commission, the SECS are facing challenges in preparing the electoral rolls and conducting timely elections. This will impact the regular functioning of Local government institutions.

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Impact on Free and Fair Election: Free and fair elections form the bedrock of a democracy. Any restriction of the functions of State Election Commissions will directly affect the free and fair election. For example, In the recent Goa government case itself, the election notification violated the reservation for women, SC, and STs.

Suggestions to improve the performance of State Election Commissions

The State governments have to follow the judicial directives. Such as,

Appointing the independent person as the State Election Commissioner,

nstituting the autonomy of SECS

Respect the SEC’s functions during the elections of Panchayats and Municipalities

The Second ARC(Administrative Reforms Commission) has recommended a few important recommendations to improve the functioning of SECS. State governments should implement them. The recommendations are,

Formation of collegium: The state government should create a collegium consisting of the Chief Minister, the Speaker, and the Leader of Opposition in the Legislative Assembly. The collegium will recommend the State Election Commissioner to the Governor for the appointment.

Creation of an institution to bring the Election Commission and the SECS under one roof. This will make better coordination, better utilization of resources, and experience sharing.

As per the recommendation of the Law Commission, The Central government can provide a separate independent and permanent Secretariat for the SECs and Election Commission.

In conclusion, the independence of the State Election Commission is essential to ensure free and fair elections at the grass-root level. So, the State governments have to ensure that to protect the bedrock of democracy.

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State Information Commission

The Right to Information Act, 2005 provides for the creation of State Information Commission at the State level. The State Information Commission will be constituted by the State Government through a Gazette notification.

Composition of State Information Commission

The Commission consists of a State Chief Information commissioner and ten State Information Commissioners. They are appointed by the Governor on the recommendation of the committee consisting of the Chief Minister as Chairperson, the Leader of the Opposition in the Legislative Assembly and a state Cabinet Minister nominated by the Chief Minister. They should be person of eminence in public life and should not hold any other office of profit or connected with any political party or carrying on any business or pursuing any profession.

Tenure and Service

The State Chief Information Commissioner and a State Information Commissioner hold office for a term of 5 years or until they attain the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. They are not eligible for reappointment.

The State Information Commission has a duty to receive complaints from any person –

a) who has not been able to submit an information request because a PIO has not been appointed;
b) who has been refused information that was requested.
c) who has received no response to his/her information request within the specified time limits;
d) who thinks the fees charged are unreasonable;
e) who thinks information given is incomplete or false or misleading;
f) any other matter relating to obtaining information under this law.

Powers and Functions of the State Information Commission

The commission submits and annual report to the state government on the implementation of the provisions of this act. The state government places this report before the state legislature.

The commission can order inquiry into any matter if there are reasonable grounds.

The commission has the power to secure compliance of its decisions from the public authority.

It is the duty of the commission to receive and inquire into a complaint from any person

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During the inquiry of a complaint, the commission may examine any record which is under the control of the public authority and no such record may be withheld from it on any grounds.

While inquiring, the commission has the power of the civil court in respect of the following matters:

Requiring the discovery and inspection of documents

Issuing summons for examination of witnesses or documents and any other matter which may be prescribed.

Summoning and enforcing attendance of persons and compelling them to give oral or written evidence on oath and to produce documents or things.

Receiving evidence on affidavit.

Requisitioning any public record from any court or office.

When a public authority does not conform to the provisions of this act, the commission may recommend steps which ought to be taken for promoting such conformity.

Similar to the centre, these commissions are also overburdened with backlog cases. Backlog cases are adding due to short staff and vacancies not being filled. In October 2014, the maximum number of appeals and complaints were pending in Uttar Pradesh. But, there are also examples such as Mizoram, Sikkim and Tripura which don’t have any backlogs. The powers of the commission are limited only to give information and not to take any action, even if there are anomalies.

However, State Information Commissions are playing a vital role in ensuring transparency in public life. Thus, these are helping in combating corruption, nepotism, oppression and misuse of the authority.

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PUBLIC POLICY

Definition:

A Public Policy is a goal oriented course of action adopted and implemented by the government bodies and officials in pursuit of certain objectives or goals of public interest.

Basically, Public Policies are:

Goal oriented

Decision making process

Government’s collective action

Addresses public concerns

Interaction of people’s demands with power structures

Importance of Public Policies:

Although the trend of privatization made the governments to relax from many areas of development still there are many important areas which needs to be focused for the sake of public interest and for social welfare and growth. Thus the study of Public Policy, also called ‘Planned view of development’, gains much more relevance.

The scientific analysis of public policy helps in understanding the causes and consequences of the policy thereby facilitating practical solutions to social problems.

A Policy which is formulated and is implemented in a participative, transparent, open and accountable manner is an effective public policy serving public interest.

Stages in Public Policy Process:

(i) Policy Formulation: A policy will be formulated in a coherent fashion keeping in mind the needs, interests, and problems of the society. It covers the larger sections of the society too.

(ii) Policy Education: Educating the masses and actual beneficiaries about the formulated policies and their impacts through media.

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(iii) Policy Implementation: This is a crucial stage which actually decides the translation of the policy goals into action. It is the task of the executive branch of the government to systematically act upon the policies with the available resources.

(iv) Policy Monitoring: Monitoring is the task done after the implementation and performing auditing and reporting process.

(v) Policy Impact: A quantitative and qualitative study needs to be done to know the impact of the policy.

Types of Public Policies:

Welfare & Development Public policies
Regulatory Public policies
Distributive & Re-distributive policies

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Legal Rights

Legal rights apply to a collection of rights formulated within a government’s legal structure. They are granted to the people of that specific state as privileges. Therefore, there are certain rights and privileges provided to citizens which are provided by the rules. According to the rules of the particular country, these rights are granted to the citizens of that country.

In short, the freedoms granted to people by their governments are legal rights. These freedoms/rights are thus established and upheld by the government’s legal framework, which therefore ensures that the same parties may also redefine or change them. Similarly, these rights are not universal, differing from state to state, country to country, individual to individual, and even from time to time. Judicial privileges are protected under the ordinary statute, but by amending the law, they may be changed or revoked by the legislature.

If violated, these rights will be dealt with by either of the ordinary courts that contradict the other two rights. In general, an ordinary right imposes a corresponding obligation on another person (and, in some circumstances, the state), but a constitutional right is a right that a citizen has against the state. Fundamental rights are protected by the executive, legislature, and judiciary from invasion.

Limitations upon all the governmental authorities are related to all human rights. Laws and administrative orders are invalid and counterproductive that abridge or interfere with those rights. Our constitution provides that the Supreme Court has the power to enforce human rights. The remedy itself, thus, is a fundamental right. This differentiates it from other rights. The defender of human rights is the Supreme Court. In addition, these human rights are not universal rights, such as the right not to be subject to tax without the power of statute (Article 265), the right to land (Article 300A), and the freedom to exchange (Article 301). It is not possible to waive a constitutional right. A person may waive an ordinary legal right.

Difference between Fundamental Rights and Legal Rights

The legal rights are protected by an ordinary law, but they can be altered or taken away be the legislature by changing that law. Fundamental Rights are protected and Guaranteed by the Constitution and they cannot be taken away by an ordinary law enacted by the legislature. If a legal right of a person is violated, he can move to an ordinary court, but if a fundamental right is violated the Constitution provides that the affected person may move to High court or Supreme Court. Here we should note that the Rights to Property was a fundamental right before 1978. The Constitution (Forty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1978, taken away the Right to property (Article 31) as a Fundamental Right and was made a legal right under new Article 300 A.

An ordinary right generally imposes a corresponding duty on another individual (and, state in some cases) but a fundamental right is a right which an individual possess against the state.

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Fundamental rights are protected against invasion by the executive, legislature and the judiciary. All fundamental rights are limitations on legislative power. Laws and executive actions which abridge or are in conflict with such rights are void and ineffective.

Our constitution guarantees the right to move the Supreme Court for the enforcement of fundamental rights. Thus the remedy itself is a fundamental right. This distinguishes it from other rights.

The Supreme Court is the guardian of fundamental rights.

Further, all constitution rights not fundamental rights e.g. right not to be subjected to taxation without authority of law (art. 265), right to property (art. 300a), and freedom of trade (art. 301). A fundamental right cannot be waived. An ordinary legal right can be waived by an individual.

Examples of Some basic legal rights:

The right to file an FIR
The right to claim a refund
Right of parents to be maintained by their children
Right to equal pay for equal work
The rights of a woman when arrested
Right to take legal action if a traffic police officer snatches the key of your vehicle
Right to a Free Legal Aid

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Citizen Charter

The citizen’s charter is a document that outlines the service commitment of organizations or service providers towards providing quality, high-standard services, including mechanisms for grievance redressal.

The Citizen’s Charter is a voluntary and written document that spells out the service provider’s efforts taken to focus on their commitment towards fulfilling the needs of the citizens/customers.

It also includes how citizens can redress any grievances.

It includes what the citizens can expect out of the service provider.

The concept is that the charter preserves the trust between the service provider and the citizens/users.

The Charters are expected to integrate the following elements:

Vision and Mission Statement.
Details of business transacted by the organisation.
Details of clients.
Details of services provided to each client group.
Details of grievance redress mechanism and how to access it.
Expectations from the clients.

Principles of Citizen’s Charter (as originally framed)

Quality – Improving service quality.

Choice – Wherever possible.

Standards – Specifically mention what to expect and how to go about if standards are not met.

Value – For taxpayers’ money.

Accountability – At the level of the individual and the organization.

Transparency – Transparency in rules/schemes/procedures/grievances.

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Other Elements of a Good Citizen’s Charter

Should be in simple language

The focus should be on the requirements of the customers

There should be periodic review

Reliability should be imbibed – that is, consistency in performance/delivery

Need of Citizen charter:

To make administration accountable and citizen friendly.
To ensure transparency.
To take measures to improve customer service.
To adopt a stakeholder approach.
To empower the citizen in relation to public service delivery.
To specify what to expect and how to act if standards are not met.
To encourage access and the promotion of choice.

Significance of Citizen’s Charters

Citizen’s charters are significant in that they empower citizens when it comes to public services.

It boosts accountability in the delivery of public services.

It enhances good governance. It improves the effectiveness of organizations by having measurable standards.

It augments the quality of services delivered by incorporating an internal and external monitoring entity.

Being citizen-centric, it creates a professional and customer-oriented environment for the delivery of services.

It also helps boost the morale of the staff.

It enhances transparency and openness.

However, there are some drawbacks also associated with these charters. They are mentioned in the below section.

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2nd ARC Recommendations related to Citizen Charter:

The Second Administrative Reforms Commission (AC) had made recommendations to improve the effectiveness of citizen’s charters. Some of the recommendations are:

They should specify the remedy/compensation in the case of any default in meeting the standards mentioned in the charters.

Charters should restrict a few promises that can be kept rather than have a long unfulfilled list.

Before making a charter, the organization should restructure its set-up and processes.

There should not be a uniform charter across organizations. They should be local and customized.

All stakeholders must be kept on board while drafting the charters.

Commitments made should be firm and there should be a citizen-friendly redressal mechanism.

Officers should be held accountable if commitments made are not fulfilled.

The citizen’s charters should be reviewed and revised regularly.

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Part D: Economy of Assam

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Economy of Assam

Syllabus:

Macro overview of Economy, Major Agricultural, Industrial and Service Sector Issues, Growth, Development and Planning, Infrastructure & Resources, Major Development Projects, Programmes and Schemes Government Welfare Schemes for SC/ST/Backward Class/Minorities/Disabled Persons, Destitute, Women, Children, Old Age People, Farmers & labourers.

Index

Economy of Assam
Macro-economic trend
Assam Budget Analysis 2021-22
Fiscal Roadmap for 2021-26
Agricultural Sector in Assam
Main Problems of Agricultural Development in Assam
Industrial Scenario of Assam
Natural resources of Assam
Industrial Infrastructure in Assam
Infrastructure of Assam
Road transport in Assam
Inland Water Transport in Assam
Physical infrastructure-Railways (/, 2014
Service sector in Assam
Key sectors – Tourism
Key sectors – Sericulture
Programs and Schemes
Welfare schemes for ST
Welfare Schemes for SC
Schemes for Welfare of O.B.C
Welfare Schemes for Woman

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Economy: Assam

Assam is the largest economy in the northeast region. Owing to its relative proximity to the rest of the country and availability of quality infrastructure, the state offers a favourable environment for industry.

The Economy of Assam is largely agriculture based with 69% of the population engaged in it. Assam is also the most popular tourist destination among the northeast states.

Assam has the largest tea growing area in the world, constituting around one-seventh of the global tea production.

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In 2020-21, tea production in the state stood at ~503.46 thousand tonnes, which was 39.12% of the total tea production in India during the same period.

It also has 20 industrial estates, three industrial growth centres, 11 Integrated Infrastructure Development Depots, 17 industrial areas, 12 growth centres, eight mini industrial estates, one export promotion park and one food processing industrial park.

At current prices, Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of Assam is estimated to reach Rs. 4.09 trillion (US$ 55.14 billion) in 2020-21. The GSDP of the state grew at a CAGR (in Rs.) of 12.38% between 2015-16 and 2020-21BE.

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According to the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), FDI inflow to the state totalled US$ 142 million between April 2000 and March 2021. The state attracted FDI inflows worth US$ 14.12 million between October 2019 and March 2021.

Exports from the state stood at US$ 415.57 million in FY21. Assam exported key items such as tea, petroleum products, coal, coke and briquettes and other products. In FY21, the total tea exports from Assam accounted for US$ 217.89 million, which was 64% of the total export.

As of April 2021, Assam had a total installed power generation capacity of 1,795.26 MW, of which 1,286.14 MW was under central utilities, 74.75 MW was under private utilities and 434.37 MW was under state utilities.

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To facilitate infrastructure support, the State Industries and Commerce Department has sponsored three projects as industrial growth centres at Chariduar, Matia and Chaygaon-Patgaon.

The Assam Government has approved 11 integrated infrastructure development centres across the state. Some of the major initiatives taken by the Government to promote Assam as an investment destination are:

Government introduced Jyotisman Asom scheme under Budget 2020-21 to provide free electricity to all households whose monthly electricity consumption is up to 30 units.

Under State Budget 2020-21, Government announced setting up of five polytechnics, seven new Government colleges, two medical colleges, one ayurvedic college, one new law college, and new university Sati Sadhoni Rayjik Vishwavidyalaya.

Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport and Dibrugarh Airport are the most popular airports in the state. Aircraft movement from Guwahati and Dibrugarh airports stood at 45,539 and 5,502, respectively, in 2019-20. Passenger traffic at Guwahati and Dibrugarh airports in 2019-20 was 54,57,449 and 5,31,993, respectively. Freight handled at Guwahati and Dibrugarh airports stood at 21,270 MT and 909 MT, respectively, during same period.

The Government has set a target to generate 6,500 MW power in the state by 2030.

State Cattle and Buffalo Breeding Policy 2020 – To achieve maximum levels of productivity from low productive cattles, cross-breeding/interbreeding with recognised dairy breed was done.

Under the ‘Comprehensive Telecom Development Plan’ (CTDP) for the North-eastern region, the Union Cabinet approved the Universal Service Obligation Fund (USOF) scheme to provide mobile coverage in Arunachal Pradesh and two districts of Assam, namely Karbi Anglong and Dima Hasao.

Recent Developments:

As per the press meeting held at the Divisional Railway Manager (DRM) office in May 2021, 48 kms of new railway line between Abhayapuri and Gauripur in Dhubri district is expected to be inaugurated next month after getting green signal from the CRS.

In February 2021, India and the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) signed a US$ 304 million loan agreement for the Assam Intra-State Transmission System Enhancement Project to improve reliability, capacity and security of the power transmission network in the northeastern state. The project aims to strengthen Assam’s electricity transmission system by constructing 10 transmission substations and laying transmission lines with the associated infrastructure.

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In February 2021, the Chief Minister of Assam, Mr. Sarbananda Sonowal, laid the foundation stone of Assam Skill University at Mangaldoi, Darrang. The university will provide skill education to the youth of India with a specific focus on Assam, and North Eastern region. This project is scheduled to be completed by September 2026. The Government of Assam is exploring partnership arrangements with countries such as Singapore, Germany, Taiwan, South Korea, Australia, Israel, Japan and the UK for providing sector-specific expertise to this university.

In February 2021, Prime Minister Mr. Narendra Modi launched the ‘Asom Mala’ programme in Dhekiajuli of Sonitpur district with the intention to enhance the state’s road infrastructure, boost economic progress and improve connectivity.

In January 2021, BCPL Railway Infrastructure received a new order worth Rs. 516.04 million (US$ 6.96 million) for supply, erection, testing and commissioning of 25KV, 50HZ single phase traction overhead equipment (OHE).

In March 2021, BCPL Railway Infrastructure received a LOA (Letter of Authority) from Railway Vikas Nigam for deployment of 25KV OHE Gang to complete residual overhead (OHE) adjustment works and provision of bonding/earthing work and safety- related work in section of Sreerampur Assam – Fakiragram of NF (Northeast Frontier) Railway.

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The project, which is expected to be completed over 45 days, has added Rs. 165 crore to the company’s orderbook.

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In October 2020, Mr. Nitin Gadkari, the Union Minister for Road Transport, Highways and MSMEs, laid foundation stones for the country’s first multimodal logistic park in Assam. The park worth Rs. 693.97 crore (US$ 93.87 million) would provide direct air, road, rail and waterway connectivity to citizens. It will be established under the government’s ‘Bharatmala Pariyojana’ initiative.

Government introduced Jyotisman Asom scheme under Budget 2020-21 to provide free electricity to all households whose monthly electricity consumption is up to 30 units.

Under State Budget 2020-21, Government announced setting up of five polytechnics, seven new Government colleges, two medical colleges, one ayurvedic college, one new law college and new university Sati Sadhoni Rayjik Vishwavidyalaya.

Government of Assam has started the project preparatory activities for the World Bank funded Inland Water Project under the Inland Water Transport Department at Rs. 975 crore (US$ 150.60) which will help realise the huge untapped potential in this sector.

Budget 2019-20 states that over 22,000 beneficiaries have been provided relief under the Atal-Amrit Abhiyan health insurance scheme which has been allocated Rs. 200 crore (US$ 28.62 million) for financial year 2019-20.

To revive the agricultural sector and double farmer incomes by 2022, the state government launched the ‘Assam Tractor Distribution’ scheme, under the Chief Minister’s Village Development Scheme (CMSGUY) for farmers.

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Key Sectors:

Tea: Between January 2021 and April 2021, production of tea in the state stood at 51.77 million kgs, contributing 29.82% to the total tea production in India. Assam’s Labour and Tea Tribes Welfare Minister, Mr. Sanjay Kishan, informed that COVID-19 care centres have been set up in more than 270 tea gardens. As of May 2021, 27,000 tea garden workers have been given the first dose of vaccination and 2,400 have been given the second dose. The government is speeding up the process with offline, on-the-spot registration facility.

Agriculture and Allies: In 2019-20, the total production of horticulture crops in the state was expected to be 6876.40 thousand metric tonnes and area under production was 704.82 thousand hectares. In 2019-20, the total production of vegetables and fruits in the state was estimated at 3673.88 thousand metric tonnes and 2562.30 thousand metric tonnes, respectively.

GOVERNMENT VISION-2030 FOR THE STATE

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Assam is India’s gateway to northeast and acts as a vital link for trade with Southeast Asian countries. The state is known for its tea, petroleum resources, muga silk and biodiversity. It is also becoming an increasingly popular destination for wildlife tourism.

The state is rich in water resources and has vast tracts of fertile land. Assam is also the third- largest producer of petroleum and natural gas in the country and has ample reserves of limestone. With its five national parks and 18 wildlife sanctuaries, the state is a biodiversity hotspot. Other potential areas of investment include power and energy, mineral-based industries, tourism, and crude oil refining.

Assam has adopted numerous investor-friendly policies to attract investments and accelerate industrial development. Key areas of focus include the IT, tourism, and power sector along with several other initiatives such as the North East Industrial and Investment Promotion Policy (NEIIPP) 2007 and the Industrial and Investment Policy 2014.

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Assam stood 22nd among Indian states in rankings based on ease of doing business and reforms implementation, according to a study by the World Bank and KPMG. The Government has set a target to generate 6,500-megawatt (MW) power in the state by 2030.

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According to the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), the cumulative FDI inflows in Assam were valued at US$ 10.49 million between October 2019 and December 2020.

Exports from the state stood at US$ 341.59 million in FY21 (until January 2021). Assam exported key items such as tea, petroleum products, coal, coke and briquettes and other products. In FY21 (until January 2021), the total tea exports from Assam accounted for US$ 217.89 million, which was 64% of the total export.

Key Insights

Assam is known for its tea, petroleum resources, Muga silk and bio-diversity.
The state has conserved the one-horned Indian rhinoceros from near extinction, along with the Pygmy hog, tiger and various species of birds. It provides one of the last wild habitats for the Asian elephant.
Assam is becoming an increasingly popular destination for wildlife tourism. Kaziranga National Park and Manas National Park are registered as world-heritage sites.
Assam is located in Northeast India. The state shares its borders with Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Tripura and West Bengal. The state shares international borders with Bangladesh, Myanmar, and the Kingdom of Bhutan.
Assamese & Bodo are the official languages. Bengali holds the official-language status in the 3 districts of the Barak Valley & is the 2nd most spoken language in the state. Assam also has a number of schools with English as the medium of education.

The state is a gateway to Northeast India. Guwahati is the largest city of the state.

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Macro-economic trend

Economy of Assam today represents a unique juxtaposition of backwardness amidst plenty. Growth rate of Assam’s income has not kept pace with that of India’s during the Post- British Era; differences increased rapidly since the 1970s.

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While the Indian economy grew at 6 percent per annum over the period of 1981 to 2000, the same of Assam’s grew only by 3.3 percent. In the Sixth Plan period Assam experienced a negative growth rate of 3.78 percent against a growth rate of 6 percent of India’s. In the post- liberalised era (after 1991), the gaps between growth rates of Assam’s and India’s economy widened further.

The per capita income of Assam was higher than the national average soon after Indian Independence. But it has slipped since, and the difference has become larger since liberalization of the Indian economy in the 1980s.

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In the current decade, according to recent analysis, Assam’s economy is showing signs of improvement. In the year 2001-2002, the economy grew in 1993-94 constant prices at 4.5 percent, falling to 3.4 percent in the next financial year.

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The Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of Assam for 2021-22 (at current prices) is projected to be Rs 3,77,102 crore. This is an annual increase of 4% over the GSDP of 2019-20. The GSDP for 2021-22 is estimated to be 0.9% higher than the revised estimate of GSDP for 2020-21 (Rs 3,73,872 crore).

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The Finance Minister of Assam, Ms. Ajanta Neog, presented the Budget for the state for the financial year 2021-22 on July 16, 2021.

Note that due to the impact of COVID-19, 2020-21 was not a standard year with respect to the performance of the economy and government finances.

In this note, 2021-22 budget estimates have been compared to the actuals for 2019-20 (in terms of compounded annual growth rate or CAGR).

Budget Highlights

The Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of Assam for 2021-22 (at current prices) is projected to be Rs 3,77,102 crore. This is an annual increase of 4% over the GSDP of 2019-20. The GSDP for 2021-22 is estimated to be 0.9% higher than the revised estimate of GSDP for 2020-21 (Rs 3,73,872 crore). In 2020-21, the GSDP of Assam is estimated to grow by 6.4% over the previous year.

Total expenditure for 2021-22 is estimated to be Rs 1,07,556 crore, an annual increase of 14% over the actual expenditure in 2019-20.

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Total receipts (excluding borrowings) for 2021-22 are estimated to be Rs 88,992 crore, an annual increase of 17% over 2019-20. In 2020-21, total receipts (excluding borrowings) are estimated to fall short of the budget estimate by Rs 2,148 crore (a shortfall of 2%).

Revenue surplus for 2021-22 is estimated to be Rs 4,574 crore, which is 1.21% of the GSDP. In 2020-21, as per the revised estimate, revenue deficit is estimated at Rs 6,229 crore (1.67% of GSDP) as compared to the revenue surplus of Rs 9,154 crore estimated at the budget stage.

Fiscal deficit for 2021-22 is targeted at Rs 15,028 crore (3.99% of GSDP). In 2020-21, fiscal deficit is estimated to be 8.05% of GSDP as per the revised estimate, higher than the budget estimate of 2.3% of GSDP.

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Revenue Surplus

It is the excess of revenue receipts over revenue expenditure. A revenue surplus implies that the government does not need to borrow to finance its expenses which do not increase its assets or reduces its liabilities. A revenue surplus indicates that the revenue receipts of the state are sufficient to meet the revenue expenditure requirements.

The budget estimates a revenue surplus of Rs 4,574 crore (or 1.21% of the GSDP) in 2021-22. In 2020-21, as per the revised estimates, revenue deficit is estimated at Rs 6,229 crore (1.67% of GSDP) against a revenue surplus of Rs 9,154 crore estimated at the budget stage. The 15th Finance Commission has recommended post-devolution revenue deficit grants of Rs 14,184 crore for the period between 2021-22 and 2023-24 for Assam.

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Fiscal Roadmap for 2021-26

The 15th Finance Commission recommended the following fiscal deficit targets for states for the 2021-26 period (as a % of GSDP):

(i) 4% for 2021-22,

(ii) 3.5% for 2022-23, and

(iii) 3% for 2023-26.

The Commission estimates that this path will lead to an increase in total liabilities of Assam from 27.1% of GSDP in 2020-21 to 30.4% of GSDP in 2025-26.

If a state is unable to fully utilise the sanctioned borrowing limit as specified above in any of the first four years (2021-25), it can avail the unutilised borrowing amount in subsequent years (within the 2021-26 period).

Additional borrowing worth 0.5% of GSDP will be allowed each year for the first four years (2021-25) upon undertaking certain power sector reforms including:

(i) reduction in operational losses,

(ii) reduction in revenue gap,

(iii) reduction in payment of cash subsidy by adopting direct benefit transfer, and

(iv) reduction in tariff subsidy as a percentage of revenue.

Fiscal Deficit:

It is the excess of total expenditure over total receipts. This gap is filled by borrowings which leads to an increase in total liabilities. In 2021-22, the fiscal deficit is estimated to be Rs 15,028 crore (3.99% of GSDP).

As per the revised estimates, in 2020-21, the fiscal deficit of the state is estimated to be 8.05% of GSDP, which is higher than the budget estimate of 2.3% of GSDP. In both 2020-21 and 2021-22, states have been allowed a higher fiscal deficit than the usual 3% limit under the FRBM Act for undertaking expenditure to support economic recovery.

Policy Highlights

Tax proposals: The upper limit for composition levy has been increased to Rs 1.5 crore for marginal taxpayers. Online platform will be created to improve the ease of compliance for non-GST laws.

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Education:

Five new medical colleges will be established to improve the quality of health services. Three new engineering colleges will be established at Bongaigaon, Behali, and Sualkuchi. State university will be established in Karbi Anglong for students in hill districts.

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Agriculture and allied activities: 100 agricultural markets and 40 warehouses will be upgraded and modernised. 1,500 high quality Murrah buffaloes will be provided to 500 beneficiaries to increase the milk production. 60 commercial dairy farms will be established to increase dairy entrepreneurship. 281 entrepreneurs will be supported to establish single layered poultry farms.

Budget Estimates for 2021-22

Total expenditure in 2021-22 is targeted at Rs 1,07,556 crore. This is an annual increase of 14% over the actual expenditure in 2019-20. This expenditure is proposed to be met through receipts (other than borrowings) of Rs 88,992 crore and borrowings of Rs 18,326 crore. In 2021-22, total receipts (other than borrowings) are expected to register an annual increase of 17% over the actual receipts in 2019-20.

As per the revised estimate for 2020-21, total expenditure is estimated to be 18% higher than the budget estimate. In 2020-21, receipts (other than borrowings) are estimated to be 2% lower than budgeted.

The state expects a revenue surplus of Rs 4,574 crore in 2021-22 (1.21% of GSDP). In 2020-21, revenue deficit is estimated to be Rs 6,229 crore at the revised stage, as compared to the revenue surplus of Rs 9,154 crore estimated at the budget stage. Fiscal deficit for 2021-22 is estimated to be Rs 15,028 crore (3.99% of GSDP). In 2020-21, as per the revised estimates, fiscal deficit is estimated to increase to 8.05% of GSDP as compared to 2.30% of GSDP estimated at the budget stage.

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Expenditure in 2021-22

Capital expenditure for 2021-22 is proposed to be Rs 23,151 crore, which is an annual increase of 17% over the actual capital expenditure in 2019-20. Capital expenditure includes expenditure affecting the assets and liabilities of the state, such as: (i) capital outlay, i.e., expenditure which leads to the creation of assets (such as bridges and hospitals), and (ii) repayment and grant of loans by the state government.

Capital outlay for 2021-22 is estimated to be Rs 19,491 crore, which is an annual increase of 22% over 2019-20. The revised estimate for capital outlay in 2020-21 is Rs 23,838 crore, which is 29% higher than the budget estimate. This includes an increase of Rs 1,892 crore in the allocation towards roads and bridges and an increase of Rs 1,499 crore towards energy.

Revenue expenditure for 2021-22 is proposed to be Rs 84,405 crore, an annual increase of 13% over 2019-20. This expenditure includes the payment of salaries, pensions, interest, and subsidies. In 2020-21, as per the revised estimates, revenue expenditure is estimated to be 16% higher than the budget estimates.

Committed expenditure: Committed expenditure of a state typically includes expenditure on payment of salaries, pensions, and interest. A larger proportion of budget allocated for committed expenditure items limits the state’s flexibility to decide on other expenditure priorities such as capital outlay. In 2021-22, Assam is estimated to spend Rs 45,708 crore on committed expenditure, which is 51% of its revenue receipts. This is an annual increase of 6% over 2019- 20. This comprises spending on salaries (34% of revenue receipts), pension (10% of revenue receipts), and interest payments (8% of revenue receipts). In 2020-21, as per the budget estimates, the state is estimated to spend 48% of revenue receipts towards committed expenditure (Rs 44,545 crore).

GST Compensation

The GST (Compensation to States) Act, 2017 guarantees states compensation for five years (till 2022) for any revenue loss arising due to GST implementation.

The Act guarantees states a 14% annual growth in their GST revenue, failing which compensation grants are provided to states to meet the shortfall. These grants are funded through the GST compensation cess levied by the centre. As the cess collection is not sufficient to meet the compensation requirement of states in 2020-21, a part of their requirement will be met through loans from the centre (which will be repaid using future cess collection).

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The state has estimated to receive Rs 2,200 crore as GST compensation grant in 2021-22. The requirement of GST compensation grants implies that the state will not be able to achieve the expected annual revenue growth of 14%

Comparison of states’ expenditure on key sectors

The average for a sector indicates the average expenditure in that sector by 30 states (including Assam) as per their budget estimates of 2020-21.

Education: Assam has allocated 19.3% of its total expenditure for education in 2021-22. This is higher than the average allocation (15.8%) for education by all states (2020-21 BE).

Health: Assam has allocated 7.1% of its total expenditure on health, which is higher than the average allocation for health by states (5.5%).

Agriculture: Assam has allocated 5.4% of its total expenditure towards agriculture and allied activities. This is lower than the average allocation for agriculture by states (6.3%).

Rural development: Assam has allocated 5.1% of its expenditure on rural development. This is lower than the average allocation for rural development by states (6.1%).

Police: Assam has allocated 5% of its total expenditure on police, which is higher than the average expenditure on police by states (4.3%).

Roads and bridges: Assam has allocated 9% of its total expenditure on roads and bridges, which is more than double the average allocation by states (4.3%).

Recommendations of the 15th Finance Commission for 2021-26

The 15th Finance Commission’s (FC) report for the 2021-26 period was released on February 1, 2021. For the 2021-26 period, the Commission has recommended the share of states in the divisible pool of central taxes to be 41%, same as that for 2020-21 (also recommended by the 15th FC in its report for 2020-21).

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This is 1% point lower than the 42% share recommended by the 14th FC (for the 2015-20 period) to separately provide funds for the newly formed union territories of Jammu and Kashmir, and Ladakh.

The 15th FC proposed revised criteria for determining the share of individual states (different from 14th FC). Based on the 15th FC’s recommendations for the period 2021-26, Assam will have a 1.28% share in the divisible pool of central taxes.

This implies that out of every Rs 100 of revenue in the divisible pool during the 2021-26 period, Assam will receive Rs 1.28. This is lower than the 1.39% share recommended by the 14th FC for the 2015-20 period.

The 15th FC recommended grants worth Rs 10.3 lakh crore for states over five years (2021-26). A portion of these grants will be conditional.

17 states will receive revenue deficit grants during this period. Sector-specific grants include grants for sectors such as health, agriculture, and education. Grants to local governments include:

(i) Rs 1.2 lakh crore for urban local bodies,

(ii) Rs 2.4 lakh crore for rural local bodies, and

(iii) health grants worth Rs 70,000 crore through local bodies for healthcare infrastructure.

Executive summary

Strong economy

At current prices, the gross state domestic product (GSDP) of Assam was Rs. 4.09 lakh crore (US$ 58.47 billion) in 2020-21.

The GSDP of the state grew at a CAGR (in Rs) of 12.58% between 2015-16 and 2020-21.

World’s single largest tea growing area

Assam has the single largest tea growing area in the world, constituting around one-seventh of the global tea production. The state accounts for over 50% in the country’s overall tea production. In 2019-20, tea production in the state stood at 695.38 thousand tonnes. For FY21, the production stood at 502.30 thousand tonnes between April 2020 and October 2020.

The state houses Guwahati Tea Auction Centre (GTAC), one of the largest CTC tea auction centres of the world.

Attractive tourism industry

With its pleasant climate and scenic landscape, Assam is a popular tourist destination. Assam is the most popular tourist destination among the north-eastern states.

Policy support

The state has adopted numerous investor-friendly policies to attract investments & accelerate industrial development.

North East Industrial Investment Promotion Policy & Industrial Policy of Assam facilitate business through fiscal incentives & multi-year concessions to investors.

IT Policy and Tourism Policy of Assam have given special attention towards specific sector development

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AGRICULTURAL SECTOR IN ASSAM

While most other states in India are gradually moving away from their traditional agriculture-based economy toward industry or service-oriented economy, Assam is still heavily dependent on the agricultural sector.

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Compared to most other states in India, Assam is considered a less developed state, which depicts a gloomy picture the economic condition of the state given that India is considered a less developed country (LDC).

While the socio-political problems afflicting the state since the last few decades are partly to blame for a lack of conducive environment for economic development of the state, particularly in industry or service-oriented areas, there are various economic reasons (e.g., fragmented land) responsible for the lagging agricultural sector in the state.

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Importance of Agriculture in the State Economy

Assam’s economy is fundamentally based on agriculture. Over 70 percent of the state’s population relies on agriculture as farmers, as agricultural laborers, or both for their livelihood. A majority of state’s population, almost 90 percent of an estimated 22.4 million in 1991, live in rural areas where the mainstay of business is production agriculture.

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The average size of land holding (including non-cultivable land) per household was only 1.30 hectares during the same time period compared to an average size of 1.47 hectares. Such fragmentation occurred due to two principal factors:

inheritance-related, i.e., breaking down land parcels to distribute among heirs, and
government land reform measures which set the ceiling for land holding per family (50 bigha s at present) thereby promoting and facilitating land fragmentation.

Numerous studies have shown that small and fragmented land holdings are one of the principal causes of low productivity because such land holdings do not facilitate economic and efficient use of modern technology (e.g., agricultural machinery, chemicals, and hybrid seed).

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Assam is far behind in the use of modern agricultural technology to improve its agricultural productivity compared to the rest of the country. Another problem of land fragmentation is the hidden unemployment or underemployment which understates the true unemployment level in the state.

Assam produces both food and cash crops. The principal food crops produced in the state are rice (paddy), maize (corn), pulses, potato, wheat, etc., while the principal cash crops are tea, jute, oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton, and tobacco. Although rice is the most important and staple crop of Assam, its productivity over the years has not increased while other crops have seen a slight rise in both productivity and land acreage.

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Tea is the most important cash crop in Assam and the state is well known world-wide for its tea. In addition, a considerable number of Assam’s population depends on secondary and tertiary sectors-related to the tea industry.

However, the exploitation of both precious land and laborers (employees) by the tea companies, most of which are either foreign-owned (non-Indian) or owned by Indian conglomerates (e.g., Tata), is well-documented. Although such exploitations are going on for decades and even well-documented in the state government’s own inquiry reports, the government (under both AGP and Cong-I periods) has failed to take any appropriate action to end such exploitations.

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Continuing to rely on the seasonal monsoon for the necessary water for cultivation is another characteristic of farming in Assam. As a result, potential exists for severe crop failure and consequent economic disaster. To avert such possible catastrophe, it will be necessary to equip the state with irrigation facilities, perhaps in selected areas first, due to the cost factor.

Main Problems of Agricultural Development in Assam

Agricultural development problems and economic development problems go hand-in- hand in Assam. Thus, while most of the development problems discussed below are agriculture- related, some of these are also related to the economic development problems in Assam.

In addition to some of the major problems such as land fragmentation, lack of modern technology, or continued reliance on rain for irrigation, there are several other problems that hinder the development of agricultural sector in Assam. Identification of such problems should facilitate finding their remedial measures.

(1) Natural calamities: Floods and dry spells are the principal natural disasters faced by farmers in Assam every year. The principal source of floods is the Brahmaputra river and its tributaries. Although it has been decades since the proposal to dredge the Brahmaputra came out, its progress and impacts are unknown.

The loss of crop, livestock, house, cultivable land, and human lives are common during the yearly flood, which also takes a toll on human spirit. It is estimated that such yearly losses amount to millions of rupees.

(2) Capital deficiency: Commercial capital, i.e., loans from banks or other credit agencies, is not generally accessible to farmers in Assam. As a result, borrowing from unscrupulous lenders, who are not regulated by the state, at an extremely high interest rate is common in the state. Tragically, In many instances some borrowers lose their livelihood, i.e., their cultivable land, to these unscrupulous lenders.

Commercial banks spent only 40 percent of their agricultural-loan budget. Their main reasons for refusing agricultural loans was a lack of necessary collateral, mostly in the form of land. A lack of proper land inheritance documentation and a lack of adequate amount of land (due to land fragmentation) were two of the main reason for lack of collateral among many farmers in Assam.

To fill the void left by commercial banks, the Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP was designed to assist rural farming families with loans to expand and improve their agricultural production as well as to explore alternative avenues to increase income) was started. However, the need for agricultural loan remains largely unfulfilled in Assam.

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(3) Marketing problems: Agricultural markets in Assam are under-developed. Farmers sell to the nearest dealer/buyers, mostly immediately after harvesting when the price is at the lowest, instead of trying to find the best market for their products.

Geographical isolation, weak transportation and communication systems, poor marketing facilities, poor or non-existent market intelligence (e.g., information on price and place to sell) are some of the principal marketing-related problems.

While most of the brokers/buyers have access to modern communication facilities such as telephone and regular and timely market reports, farmers in Assam are many years away from having such facilities to gauge the market and sell accordingly.

In terms of the role of government, earlier studies have shown that government efforts are more focused on collecting revenue (in the form of tax in the daily or weekly markets or through check-gates) than facilitating the marketing of agricultural products in Assam. A re-orientation of the government’s focus from revenue collection to marketing facilitation will be necessary if farmers are to benefit.

(4) Research and development (R&D): The Assam government started allocating funds specifically for research and development only since the sixth five-year plan (1980-85), with an amount equal to 0.06 percent of the total outlay of Rs. 11.2 billion. It is encouraging to note that such outlays were increased to 0.2 percent in the seventh plan, and to 0.5 percent in the eighth plan.

However, it is not known how much of this R&D outlay is spent to improve agricultural productivity in the state, or how much of the total R&D output has reached farmers. An assessment of the impact of past and current R&D in the state would provide answers to such questions.

(5) Land reform: Although the intent of land reform may have been to distribute land to all eligible landless citizens of the state, it resulted in increased land fragmentation, discouraged use of modern and efficient production technology, and increased bureaucracy and corruption.

It is perhaps timely to examine the real impact of land reform in last few decades in terms of its effects on the growth and development of the agricultural sector in the state.

(6) Non-economic Factors: Lack of education, ignorance about the changing economic conditions, out-dated thinking, prejudiced cultural values, disturbed law and order situation, and lack of scrupulous legislative and administrative machinery are some of the principal non- economic factors that hinder agricultural development in Assam.

While the first four factors are mostly socio-cultural, which may take time to change for the better, the later two factors are mostly political. All these factors adversely affect agricultural as well as economic development of the state.

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Political and administrative instabilities not only create an unstable economic environment which scare away entrepreneurial skills, capital necessary for growth, and induce brain-drain, they also adversely affect socio-economic infrastructure, such as education, intellectual thinking, social and family structure. Obviously, political unrest in Assam since the late 1970s is not helping the agricultural sector or the economy of Assam.

Reflecting the characteristics of a typical, less-developed economy, the economy of Assam is acutely dependent on the agricultural sector. Various economic as well as socio- political factors are responsible for the continued lack of growth and development of this sector. In addition, ineffective or inefficient government programs also contribute to this sector’s lack of growth.

Amidst continued problems, there is hope for the future. There is potential for agri-food industries that use primary agricultural products as their raw materials, e.g., fruits and vegetable processing industry, sugarcane refining, tea industry, and jute industry. Such growth in the secondary and related tertiary sectors (e.g., packaging, shipping, transportation, etc.) will not only benefit the primary agriculture tremendously, but also reduce growing unemployment and provide the much needed revenue to the state government.

In a market economy, private entrepreneurs generally would take the initiative to establish such secondary (and tertiary) industries, supported by commercial credit sources. However, a lack of entrepreneurial and managerial talent, a lack of adequate capital, poor economic infrastructures, government bureaucracy, and continued political-administrative unrest would discourage any would-be investor. It can be argued that the state should step in to fill the gap which is left unfulfilled by the private sector.

However, given the poor performance of state-owned enterprises, the strategy of government involvement in business must be changed. For instance, instead of ownership and management of businesses using state-run corporations, joint ventures with private, including foreign, investors may be economically beneficial.

Agricultural Pollution:

Agricultural activities that cause pollution include confined animal facilities, grazing, pesticide spraying, irrigation, fertilizing, planting, and harvesting.

The major agricultural pollutants that result from these activities are sediment, nutrients, pathogens, pesticides, and salts. Agricultural activities also can damage habitat and stream channels. Agricultural impacts on surface water and ground water can be minimized by properly managing activities that can cause agricultural pollution.

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Nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium in the form of fertilizers, manure, sludge, and crop residues are applied to enhance production. When they are applied in excess of plant needs the productivity of land reduces.

Pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides are used to kill pests and control the growth of weeds and fungus. These chemicals can destroy the quality of agricultural land.

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Industrial Scenario of Assam

For decades Assam is known for its premium tea and petroleum refineries. But the fact is nearly 69% of its workforce is employed in agriculture or related activities, thus showing the huge gap between this state and rest of the country in terms of growth in industrial infrastructure.

While political instability and militant insurgency have been stumbling blocks in ensuring a peaceful environment for industrial progress, things are changing for better in Assam since 2012.

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The emphasis has been on an eco-friendly investment strategy for sustainable development of the state. The hugewater resources of the state are being leveraged to fully tap the hydro power, development of pisciculture (aquaculture) and transport links.

Industrial and Investment Policy of Assam

Assam Industrial and Investment PolicySome of the advantages like the existence of oldest tea industry, huge onshore oil production, only stock exchange for the whole of NE region and presence of banks and financial bodies, can be leveraged further by Assam to attract businesses from the mainland.

The state has a modest industrial base covering segments like crude oil, petrochemicals, fertilisers, textiles, cement, paper, plastic and traditional handicrafts that offer gainful employment to thousands of able people.

In this industrial and investment policy released in 2014, the state has identified the following sectors for investment:

1.Food processing and agro based Industries;

mineral-based industries;bamboo industries;
extraction and value addition of herbal medicinal and aromatic plants;
bio-technology;
IT related activities; and
hospitality and
tourism sectors.

Natural resources of Assam

Oil and natural gas, apart from tea estates, bring in most of the industrial revenues to

Crude oil reserve is estimated at over 1.3 billion tonnes and natural gas is estimated at 156 billion cubic meters.

The state accounts for about 15% of India’s crude output. The wells at Digboi, Duliajan, Sivasagar and Moran produce natural gas accounting for about 50% of the country’sonshore production, which may be used as feedstock for production of fertilisers, electricity, petrochemicals and also as fuel in the industries.

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Assam Gas Cracker Project (Brahmaputra Cracker and Polymer Ltd) which is being implemented for the production of HDPE/LLDPE and polypropylene is based on resources available within the state.

Once commissioned, the cracker unit will supply a huge intermediate feedstock for further processing in a host of downstream polymer units in Assam. With limestone reserves of about 700 million tonnes in various grades, China clay in Karbi-Anglong district (vital input for ceramic units) and coal reserves of 320 million tonnes, Assam is set to emerge as a major industrial hub in the north-eastern part of the country soon.

The coal found in upper and central Assam has high sulphur content, high volatile matter, high calorific value and low ash content.

The deposits of high value stones like granite, estimated to be more than a billion cubic meters, are available in various shades and colours even as they have ready domestic and export markets.

Sericulture Industry in Assam

Assam produces three types of silk – eri, muga and pat (mulberry).

The muga silk is unique to the state and is popularly known as thegolden fibre. Having got geographical indication (GI) certification, the muga silk vocation can be further expanded into a full-fledged network of industries with profusion of capital and modern weaving techniques.

Industrial Infrastructure in Assam

Assam Industrial Infrastructure A nodal agency Planning and Development department (PND) has prepared a 20-year perspective plan for infrastructure growth in Assam.

It has been suggested the creation of 8-10 subgroups to make an intensive study of the projects. The PND takes care of four core sectors – roads and inland water transport, urban growth, industry and power.

It has been found that effective and efficient execution of the physical, policy level and institutional interventions across the industrial domains will lead to development of multi-modal transport corridors, growth of urban clusters and production centres leading to augmentation of power infrastructure.

According to an estimate, nearly Rs 3.60 lakh core of investment will be needed to develop the envisaged networks of infrastructure and a major part of funding is expected to be mobilised through multilateral loans and private investments.

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Infrastructure of Assam

As the gateway to north-eastern India, Assam is continuously developing the infrastructure needs by creating new roads, inland waterways and other modes of transportation for efficient connectivity throughout this vast region which is crucial for the country’s Act East policy.

Infrastructure Description

Software Technology Park: A software technology park has been set up at Guwahati, near the Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport, by the Software Technology Parks of India Limited (STPI).

Food Processing Park: India’s Government has sanctioned a food processing park with a total project cost of US$ 1.2 million. The park is being set up near Chaygaon in the district of Kamrup (rural). The implementing agency is Assam Small Industries Development Corporation Limited.

Agri-Export Zone for Ginger: India’s Government has sanctioned an agri-export zone for the state for fresh and processed ginger. The nodal agency for implementing this project is Assam Industrial Development Corporation Limited. The zone is located in eight districts: Kamrup, Nalbari, Barpeta, Darrang, Morigaon, Nagaon, Karbi Anglong and North Cachar (NC) hills of Assam.

Biotech Park: Considering the importance of biotechnology, an integrated park to provide all infrastructural and other related services has been developed in Guwahati. The Guwahati Biotech Park undertakes research activities in biotechnology. The park was inaugurated on 25 February 2011.

Tea Park: A tea park is being set up at Chaygaon by AIDC in Kamrup District in an area of approximately 100 acres of land. The park would provide facilities for blending, storage and transshipment of Assam tea for the world market.

But the major challenge is mobilising the scarce funds as the Central government alone won’t be able to pitch in with the huge capital required.

Whereas the state government is also facing the arduous task of containing insurgency on the one hand and providing jobs to millions of educated youth who eagerly await appointment orders on the other hand.

Road transport in Assam

Road transport of Assam With a road length of nearly 69,000 km, public transport is the common mode of transport linking towns and villages of Assam.

It is common to see rural roads without a proper black-topping or any semblance of modern layout to distinguish the path from the rest of the surface as development is yet to reach the remote corners of the state.

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All the major towns are connected by National Highways, while the East-West Corridor is under construction and proposed to be completed by the end of 2015.

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Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport Assam

Lokopriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport AssamLokopriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport (LGBI, Borjhar, Guwahati) is the only international airport for entire north- eastern region of the country.

In recent times, the frequency of flights and number of air travellers have increased exponentially. The jump in the movement of air passengers during the period 2001-10 is 15% for Guwahati airport as compared to all India average of 12.9% in the same period.

Besides the modern Guwahati airport, there are other functional airports in Jorhat, Silchar, Dibrugarh, Lakhimpur and Tezpur which offer seamless, efficient connectivity to explore the virgin beauty of northeast India.

Neighbouring countries Bhutan and Bangladesh make full use of Guwahati airport which serves as a vital bridge connecting India to Southeast Asia.

Inland Water Transport Assam

Blessed with extensive navigable waterways, Assam has a riverine system with overall length of 4,065 km, out of which 2,194 km area navigable throughout the year and the rest during the monsoon only.

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Inland Water Transport Assam The major rivers Brahmaputra and Barak along with their tributaries. Assam is endowed with extensive navigable waterways. The major rivers are the Brahmaputra and Barak and their numerous tributaries which play an indispensable role in the economic development of the region.

The river Brahmaputra from Dhubri to Sadiya has been declared as National Waterway no-2 by the Central government.

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Offering a ready and cheap mode of transport, the rivers open up excellent opportunity for speedy economic growth with efficient ferrying of passengers and goods, thus interlinking neighbouring states and Bangladesh.

A lot of potential is waiting to be exploited as the state government can upgrade its river transport services on Brahmaputra and Barak which will immensely help in upgrading the lifestyle of Assamese in due course.

At present, there are two road-cum-rail bridges and one road bridge over the river Brahmaputra. The fourth and fifth bridge over the river near Dibrugarh (Bogi beel) and in Guwahati is under construction.

Northeast frontier railway Assam

North East Frontier RailwaysWith a rail network of 2,506 km, Assam is connected to all major cities of India by the Indian Railways.

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Besides, all major district towns of the state are interlinked by railways whose headquarters of North-East Frontier Railways is located in Guwahati which is the most connected city of the north-eastern region.

Inland Container Depot (ICD) Assam

Container Corporation of India LtdContainer Corporation of India Ltd (CONCOR) operates an ICD at Amingaon, 10 km from Guwahati having one reach stacker with 50MT capacity and two sling cranes with 35 MT capacities.

Two bonded warehouses of CONCOR along with a private warehouse adding up a total area of 6400 sq m operate from the ICD.

Electricity supply in Assam

The government is keen to supply quality electricity through dedicated feeders and is encouraging the setting up of captive power plants at industrial estates and growth centres across the state.

The state would encourage private sector to set-up power plants to generate electricity at an optimum level which is a prerequisite for industrial growth.

Telecommunication and Internet Connectivity Assam

The households and companies face no hurdles in accessing telecom facilities which have been at the core of industrial enterprise.Moreover, the penetration of landlines and cell phones is steadily increasing opening up newer opportunities for entrepreneurs.

A range of broadband services and wireless connectivity are being offered in Guwahati. The cell phone users have ready access to GPRS, 3G, 4G and other latest wave of digital innovations which have become a craze among the Assamese youth.

Banks and Finance Sector in Assam

There are a total 1,804 bank branches of all schedule commercial banks in Assam. The average population covered per bank branch was around 20,000 compared to all India average of 14,000 and the credit-deposit ratio was 43.56% in 2012-13.

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Most of the nationalised banks, financial institutions and insurance companies have their regional offices (or zonal offices) in Guwahati.

The premier foreign trade bankEXIM Bank has a presence in Guwahati. It may be noted that North East Development Finance Corporation (NEDFC) and Assam Financial Corporation are the main institutions that offer funding to a range of industries in the region.

Industrial Infrastructure in Assam

The state has 64 commercial estates for the micro and small scale units and 50 industrial estates (or areas) spread across the districts of Assam.

Besides, there are 3 industrial growth centres (IGCs) located at Balipara (Sonitpur district), Matia (Goalpara district) and Chaygaon-Patgaon-Jambari (Kamrup district).

Offering a host of facilities under one roof, Assam has 11 numbers of integrated infrastructure development centre (IIDs), out of which two were under construction.

The state has 11 numbers of Integrated Infrastructure Development Centre (IIDs) out of which 2 are under construction. Two more projects on similar lines have been approved by the Central government under MSE-CDP scheme at Pathsala (Barpeta) and Moran (Dibrugarh).

Software Technology Parks in Assam

An STP is under operation adjacent to the LGB International Airport in Guwahati and another such facility is construction at Azara in Kamrup district.

Bio Technology Park in Assam

A Bio-Technology Park is operating from the campus of Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), North Guwahati, offering a number of high-tech facilities for start-up firms in the fields of biotech and genetic engineering.

Export Promotion Industrial Park (EPIP) Assam

There is an EPIP at Amingaon covering 68.10 acres of land and occupied by 58 units. The EPIP is developed to provide infrastructural facilities of high standard for export oriented units. The EPIP supports industries across verticals like core engineering, herbal products, cosmetics, cane and bamboo, pharmaceuticals, food processing and plastic processing.

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Infrastructure………Description

Export Promotion Industrial Park: Assam Industrial Development Corporation (AIDC) has implemented an Export Promotion Industrial Park (EPIP) at Amingaon, near Guwahati, in the district of Kamrup, at an estimated cost of US$ 3.0 million. The total area of the park is 68.1 acres. AIDC has constructed 3 industrial sheds and allotted them to 3 industrial units. There are 38 companies in the park, offering direct employment opportunities to 4,000 people & indirect employment opportunities to about 12,000 people.

Industrial growth centres: Industrial growth centres with supporting infrastructure have been set up at Balipara in the Sonitpur district and Matia in Goalpara. The Matia industrial growth centre has been set up with a total project cost of US$ 4.5 million & spans 700 acres. The Balipara industrial growth centre has been set up with a total project cost of US$ 5.3 million and is spread across 400 acres.

Integrated Infrastructure Development (IID) Centres: IID centres have been planned at Parbatpur, Serphangguri, Dalgaon, Demow, Bhomoraguri, Malinibeel, Dahudi, Silapathar, Rangia, Banderdewa & Titabar. The projects at Bhomoraguri, Dalgaon, Malinibeel, Titabar, Demow, Dahudi, Banderdewa, Silapathar and Rangia are already completed & the other projects are also on the verge of completion.

Border Trade Centres (BTC): BTCs are located at Mankachar (Dhubri), Sutarkandi (Karimganj) & Darranga (Kamrup).

Oil and Gas

Assam is a major producer of crude oil and natural gas in India. It was placed as the second in the world, (after Titusville in the United States) where petroleum was discovered.

Asia’s first successful mechanically drilled oil well was drilled in Makum (Assam) way back in 1867. The second oldest oil well in the world still produces crudes oil. Most of the oilfields of Assam are located in the Upper Assam region of the Brahmaputra Valley.

Assam has four oil refineries located at Guwahati, Digboi, Numaligarh and Bongaigaon with a total capacity of 7 million tonnes per year. Bongaigaon Refinery and Petrochemicals Limited (BRPL) is the only S&P CNX 500 conglomerate with a corporate office in Assam. One of the biggest public sector oil company of the country, Oil India Ltd. has its plant and headquarter at Duliajan.

Other Industries in Assam

Apart from tea and petroleum refineries, Assam has few industries of significance. Industrial development is inhibited by its physical and political isolation from neighbouring countries such as Myanmar, China and Thailand and from the other growing South East Asian economies.

The region is landlocked and situated in the easternmost periphery of India and is linked to the mainland of India by a flood and cyclone prone narrow corridor with weak transportation infrastructure. The international airport in Guwahati is yet to find airlines providing better direct international flights.

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The Brahmaputra suitable for navigation does not have sufficient infrastructure for international trade and success of such a navigable trade route will be dependent on proper channel maintenance, and diplomatic and trade relationships with Bangladesh.

Although having a poor overall industrial performance, there are several other industries, including a chemical fertiliser plant at Namrup, petrochemical industries at Namrup and Bongaigaon, paper mills at Jagiroad, Panchgram and Jogighopa, sugar mills at Barua Bamun Gaon, Chargola, Kampur, cement plant at Bokajan, cosmetics plant of Hindustan Unilever(HUL) at Doom Dooma, etc.

Moreover, there are other industries such as jute mill, textile and yarn mills, silk mill, etc. Many of these industries are facing loss and closer due to lack of infrastructure and improper management practices.

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Physical infrastructure – Railways

The state is well connected by the railway network. Within the state, all major towns such as Dibrugarh, Tinsukia, Jorhat, Nagaon, Guwahati, Tezpur, Barpeta & Bongaigaon are well connected by the railway network.

The headquarters of the North-East Frontier Railways is located at Maligaon, on the outskirts of Guwahati. Guwahati railway station is the only station in North East to run completely on solar power. As of February 2019, Tourist Department of Assam promotes “Awesome Assam” by using three Northeast Frontier Railway trains. In January 2021, BCPL Railway Infrastructure received a new order worth Rs. 516.04 million (US$ 6.96 million) for supply, erection, testing and commissioning of 25KV, 50HZ single phase traction overhead equipment (OHE)

In March 2021, BCPL Railway Infrastructure received a LOA (Letter of Authority) from Railway Vikas Nigam for deployment of 25KV OHE Gang to complete residual overhead (OHE) adjustment works and provision of bonding/earthing work and safety-related work in section of Sreerampur Assam – Fakiragram of NF (Northeast Frontier) Railway.

Service sector in Assam

The service sector comprises trade, repair, hotel and restaurants, transport, storage, communication and services related to broadcasting, financial services, real estate, ownership of dwelling and professional services, public administration and other services.

In the state’s service sector, tourism has emerged as one of the fastest-growing contributors, accounting for 5.5 per cent of GSDP and approximately 10.5 per cent of total employment in the state. In this, the state government’s initiatives, such as the promotion campaign ‘Awesome Assam’, are reaping dividends. Assam jumped from #20 in 2018 to # 12 this year among the most improved big states in India Today’s State of the States rankings. The number of tourists arriving in Assam has been steadily increasing, though the flow was hugely disrupted in 2020 by the pandemic.

Social sectors

A long history of socio-political turbulence, the state’s poor infrastructure and its geographical distance from the mainland have hampered Assam’s economic growth and its performance in terms of inclusive development. The following is an insight into Assam’s performance in two key social indices-education and health.

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Education: Assam has consistently performed well when it comes to its education sector in the annual India Today State of the Sates ranking. Measured by parameters such as the total expenditure on education, the literacy rate, the ratio of girls to boys enrolled in primary and middle schools, the pupil-teacher ratio, the dropout rate in primary and middle education and the number of schools, colleges and universities, it has found place among the top 10 bestperforming states and among the top five most-improved states in the past three years.

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Health: The state has seen a steep increase in the percentage of institutional deliveries (children born in hospitals), rising from 70.6 per cent (2015-16) to 91 per cent in 2019-20. This, in turn, has been one of the contributing factors for a steep decline in the maternal mortality rate (23.67 per cent) and the infant mortality rate (6.38 per cent). Such achievements are reflected in the annual India Today State of the States rankings-the state has been among the top five most- improved states for the past three years. According to the NITI Aayog’s health index, Assam was categorised as an ‘achiever’ in terms of overall and incremental performance.

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Law and order

Though Assam accounts for just 3.8 per cent of the total cognisable cases under the IPC (Indian Penal Code) in the country, it has the third-highest crime rate, at 358.9 incidences of crime per 100,000 people, as revealed in the 2019 report of the NCRB (National Crime Records Bureau). The national average crime rate is 241.2. Assam also has the fourth-highest rate of murders in India and recorded 56 incidences of kidnapping, the third-highest in the country.

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The state has also earned the ignominy of having a high rate of rape-at 10.5 incidents of rape per 100,000 people, it’s the third-highest rate in India. The 2019 NCRB report also found that 397 cases were registered against police personnel, the third-highest in the country.

The state also suffers from serious shortage of manpower, with 59 police personnel per 100,000 people, as against 99 in Kerala and 90 in Telangana, two states with comparable populations. Yet, to the state’s credit, the number of pending cases per 1,000 people in Assam is just nine-among the lowest in the country.

Aside from this, the state has also shown remarkable progress in remaining free of terror- related activities. While 45 persons were killed in 2016, when the BJP-led government came to power, only seven people fell victim to terrorrelated violence in 2020. The number was just two in 2019, a far cry from 2001, when the toll was 284. As Assam enters a phase of relative peace, the state is gradually taking steady steps towards social and economic progress. Bogged down by a legacy of insurgency and turbulence, the state still has a long way to go to catch up with the leading states in the country, but the focus on development is evident, particularly with the Union government’s special focus on the northeast region. In a true sense, Assam is emerging as the gateway to Southeast Asia.

Key sectors – Tourism

Assam is popularly known for its natural beauty and pristine tea gardens, attracting photographers from all over the world.. Besides the existing national tourism circuit within Assam, the state plans to add several thematic and eco-tourism circuits. The subsidiary and regional circuits would boost domestic tourism.

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Due to the high potential for development of wildlife tourism in the state, the central Government has increased the funds under the centrally sponsored “Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats” scheme towards the state to US$ 428 thousand for the year 2017-18.

Under the Swadesh Darshan Scheme, amount sanctioned by the Government as of March 2017, for a heritage circuit was US$ 15.26 million. Under the Prasad Scheme, for the expansion of Kamakhya temple along with pilgrimage destinations in and around Guwahati, the Government sanctioned US$ 5.19 million during the same period.

In 2019 (as of December 2019), 4.7 million tourists arrived in Assam. Under State Budget 2020-21, Government allocated US$ 18.31 million to the department.

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Key sectors – Sericulture

The climate & general environment of Assam is well suited for sericulture. Traditional varieties of silk cultured in the state include Eri, Muga & mulberry.

Muga silk, known for its fine sheen & golden colour, is used by the local silk-weaving industry, which has contributed to the development of Muga in the state.

Assam enjoys global monopoly in terms of Muga silk (also known as golden silk) production. The state accounts for around 95% of global Muga production.

Moreover, Assam is the country’s major Eri silk producer (accounts for 65% of the country’s Eri silk production). Silk Production in the state for 2018-19(P) is 5,026 MT.

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For the development of Eri and Muga silk industries in the state, the Government will take up Assam Silk Outreach Mission from 2016 at an estimated cost of US$ 366.63 million for a total period of 10 years.

By 2025, this mission aims to produce 1 million kg of Muga silk & 10 million kg of Eri silk. Further, in 7 districts of the state, Integrated Sericulture Development Project is being applied, out of which 3 districts are for Eri whereas 4 districts are for Muga.

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Programs and Schemes

Assam Government has launched several welfare schemes for the state residents including schemes for unemployed, women, pensioners, youth, farmers, entrepreneurs, labourers and students belonging to every category of the society.

Anundoram Borooah Cash cum Laptop Award Scheme (ARBAS)

Govt of Assam is providing Laptops and cash award in lieu of Laptops to the meritorious students securing 1st division in the HSLC and High Madrassa Examination of SEBA and 10th standard examination held under State Madrassa Education Board, Assam and Sanskrit Board Assam under ‘Anundoram Barooah Cash-cum Laptop Award Scheme’.

Under ARBAS Scheme in Assam, the state govt. will provide citation in form of certificate along with a personal computer (PC), Internet connectivity (3G/4G devices) with 2 years subscription to meritorious students. Interested students can fillup Anundoram Borooah Laptop Award Scheme (ARBAS) Online Registration Form 2021 at arbas.assam.gov.in

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Anundoram Borooah was the first Assamese to join Indian Civil Service. In his name, ARBAS Award Scheme was introduced in 2005 to promote competition spirit among students and to provide up-to-date information of IT technology.

Students securing First Division Star Mark in HSLC (10th / Metric), High Madrassa and FM Examinations conducted by SEBA and State Madrassa Education Board, Assam can avail ARBAS scheme benefits.

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Assam Sneha Sparsha Scheme

Sneha Sparsha means “touch of love”, is the recent unique Health Care Initiative for Children below 12 years of age.

This scheme had been launched by the Department of Health & Family Welfare, Government of Assam. The Sneha Sparsh Scheme is being implemented by NHM, Assam.

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Snehasparsham is a striving public health initiative that aims at bearing expenditure of very high-end specialized treatment such as Thalassemia requiring Bone Marrow Transplant, Liver and Kidney transplant, and Cochlear Implant.

Eligibility Criteria for Sneha Sparsh Scheme

Only those candidates who satisfies the below mentioned eligibility criteria would be eligible for Sneha Sparsh Scheme:

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Applicant who requires treatment must be a resident of Assam state.
The total annual family income of the patient from all sources must not exceed Rs. 2.50 lakh.
Priority would be given to the Below Poverty Line (BPL) families.

The beneficiary or guardians shall have to submit an Income Certificate issued by competent authority such as the Deputy Commissioner, Sub-Divisional Officer, Circle Officer or any other authority notified by Govt from time to time to be eligible for financial assistance.

Treatment of some of the admissible procedures under the Scheme may be done in the Medical College Hospitals and other Hospitals inside the State, whereas treatment of some of the diseases may require referral to suitable Health Institutions outside the State.

Sneha Sparsha Committee shall recommend, depending on the merit of the case, either referral of a case for super specialty treatment outside the State, or consider reimbursement of the medical expenses incurred while undergoing treatment in the Medical College Hospitals and other Hospitals of the State.

Assam Moitri Scheme 2021

Assam government has launched Moitri Scheme for the overall development of police stations (Thana). Subsequently, the state govt. will help in re-dedicating the police force in the service of people and will also create human friendly environment along with a modern scientific human approach.

Salient Features of Assam Moitri Scheme

The important features and highlights of this Assam Moitri Scheme are as follows:-

Mission of Overall Improvement of Thana for Responsive Image will focus on improving the physical conditions of various police stations.

Subsequently, this scheme will enable citizens to get the benefits of the services easily at their respective police thanas through digitalisation.

Under this scheme, govt. will provide basic facilities like Reception and Waiting Lounge facility, video-conference system, separate cells and entrances for women and children, toilets, adequate drinking water and boundary wall, physical infrastructure, internet connectivity and basic tools for cyber crime detection.

The primary focus is to make these police stations citizen’s friendly.

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Under this scheme, govt. will cover total 346 police stations in the upcoming 5 years.

However in the first phase of its implementation, govt. will cover 73 thanas with a total outlay of Rs. 125 crore. Under this scheme, govt. will spend approx. Rs. 2 crore at each police station.

Accordingly, govt. will transform all the police stations into centers for Public Service Delivery System. Furthermore, this scheme will bridge the gap between Police and the general public.

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Under Moitri Scheme, govt. will categorize the police stations into metro, town and rural as these will be refurbished into 2 phases. Moreover, Police stations will become eco-friendly and also deck these police stations with trees. Furthermore, govt. will also provide training on soft-skills to police personnel to make them citizen-friendly.

Swami Vivekananda Assam Youth Empowerment Yojana – SVAYEM

Swami Vivekananda Assam Youth Empowerment Yojana aims to generate employment opportunities in rural as well as urban areas through setting up of new ventures as well as growing existing ventures.

In this scheme, financial assistance will be provided to micro and small business entities engaged in the manufacturing, trading and services sector. Moreover, govt. will also provide financial assistance for enhancement of income level of traditional artisans ensuring sustainable growth.

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In this SVAYEM Scheme Assam 2021, govt. will provide Rs. 50,000 each to 2 lakh youth to encourage entrepreneurship. SVAYEM will provide financial support to the youths to take up income generating activities in manufacturing, trading and service sector. By utilising the Rs. 50k seed money received in this scheme, selected youths can start their business ventures.

Eligibility Criteria for SVAYEM Scheme Assam 2021

All the applicants must fulfill the below mentioned criteria to become eligible for the SVAYEM Scheme Assam 2021:

Applicant must be a permanent resident of Assam state.

The age of the applicant must be less than 40 years.

He/She must have passed matriculation i.e 10th class.

The applicant should be a part of the existing Self Help Groups, Joint Liability Groups

Redesigned SVAYEM is the biggest self-employment programme launched by any government in Assam since Independence. The allocated amount of Rs. 1,000 crore for SVAYEM Scheme Assam 2021 will come from the state govt’s own revenue without any banking linkage.

Assam Inter Caste Marriage Scheme 2021

Assam government is going to launch a new Inter Caste Marriage Scheme 2021 to promote instances of wedding b/w different castes. Under this Assam Inter Caste Marriage Scheme, the state govt. will provide financial assistance to couples performing inter-caste marriages. It can be one of the significant steps to reduce the caste prejudices, abolish untouchability and spread the values of liberty, equality, fraternity etc in the society

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Conditions to Avail Assam Inter Caste Marriage Scheme Benefits

Here are some of the required conditions to be met to avail benefits of Assam Inter Caste Marriage Scheme:-

The marriage has to be solemnised between April 2019 to March 2021.

The marriage should be valid as per the law.

No incentive is available on second or subsequent marriage.

The annual income of the couple from all sources should not exceed Rs. 5 lakh.

Under the scheme, one spouse must belong to the Scheduled Caste and the other to a general caste (non SC/ST/OBC).

Submission of false/ fabricated information to the competent authority would be punishable as per law in force. The total amount of incentive will be given to the eligible couple through DBT mode i.e directly into bank account of bride / bridegroom / joint account of the couple.

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Assam Arundhati Gold Scheme 2021

Under this Arundhati Swarna Yojana, the state govt. will provide Rs. 30,000 to newlywed brides at the time of their wedding. This Arundhati Gold Scheme 2021 in Assam will ensure that the daughter’s of the state becomes happy in their after marriage life. Happy women lays a strong foundation for the holistic development of the state. Moreover, the customary traditions of the communities will get fulfilled which would enables citizen to live a life of dignity in their society.

For availing Arundhati scheme benefits, the total annual income of bride must be less than Rs. 5 lakh. Moreover, marriage must be registered under Special Marriage (Assam) Rules, 1954.

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Who was Arundhati – Naming of Gold Scheme in Assam

Arundhati was wife of great sage Basistha and considered an epitome of chastity & conjugal bliss. For a father, there could be no greater joy than to see his daughter happily married with all the qualities and happiness that of Arundhati.

As per the official announcement in the Assam Budget 2020-2021, all brides in such community where it is customary to provide gold at marriage will now get assistance of Rs. 30,000 for Purchasing 1 tola gold.

Assam Arundhati Swarna Yojana Eligibility Criteria

All the applicants must fulfill the following eligibility criteria to become eligible for Assam Arundhati Gold Scheme:-

Both the bride and groom should have attained the legal age of 18 years and 21 years respectively at the time of registration of the marriage.

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The marriage of the applicant should be registered under Special Marriage Act, 1954 to avail Assam Arundhati Gold Scheme benefits.
Applicant should have solemnized her marriage on or after 1st December 2019.
Applicant should have registered her marriage on or after 1st January 2020.
Applicant girl should apply for the benefit under Arundhati Gold Scheme on the same day that she applies for marriage registration.
The total annual income of parents of the applicant girl from all sources must not exceed Rs. 5 Lakh per annum.
The 1 tola gold benefit under Swarna Yojana for applicant girl is available only for first marriage.
Both the bride and the groom must have passed at least HSLC or equivalent in case of non SC/ST and non Tea Tribe communities. Either of the bride or groom must have passed 10th or equivalent in case of SC/ST communities for next 5 years.
No minimum educational qualification is required in case of Tea Tribe communities for next 5 years. This is because most of the Tea Gardens in the State of Assam do not have High School facility.

Assam ANNA Scheme 2021

Assam government has introduced a new Affordable Nutrition & Nourishment Assistance (ANNA) Yojana for poor people. Under this scheme, the state govt. provides rice free of cost (earlier at just Rs. 1 Per kg).

ANNA Scheme will strengthen food security and will benefit around 59 lakh households in Assam. The state govt. is primarily responsible to provide proper nutrition to poor families and is now fulfilling its commitment.

ANNA Yojana 2021 in Assam would serve the basic purpose that all poor citizens particularly children and women get nutritious meal everyday. Rice is a basic necessity of people and by providing this essential commodity at lower rates under a food subsidization programme is a major step towards ensuring good health of citizens.

Arundhati, Indira Miri Universal Widow Pension & Other Scheme Details

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The state govt. has also announced various other schemes like Arundhati Scheme, Indira Miri Universal Universal Widow Pension scheme etc. Arundhati Yojana, govt. allows for 1 tola gold, later replaced by Rs. 40,000, to be directly transferred to the beneficiary girl entering into matrimony, whose family’s annual income is below Rs.5 lakh. Around 1815 young women and their families have benefitted from this innovative Scheme and the total expenditure has been Rs. 726 lakh till date.

Under Indira Miri Universal Widow Pension Scheme, any women upto the age of 45 years who losses her husband will receive an amount of Rs. 25,000 as immediate family assistance. This amount is for regular maintenance expenses and the widow will also get Rs. 250 as monthly pension until she attains the age of 60 years after which she shall be moved into the old age pension scheme.

Assam Chief Minister’s Samagra Gramya Unnayan Yojana (CMSGUY) 2021

Chief Minister’s Samagra Gramya Unnayan Yojana is one of the most ambitious multi- sectoral schemes of our Government which aims to double our farmers income within a period of 5 years (from 2017 till 2022). For this, a mega mission society was convened with a governing council chaired by our Honourable Chief Minister.

Below are the key highlights of Chief Minister Samagra Gramya Unnayan Yojana (CMSGUY):-

Double the farm income in five years by 2022.

Saturation model: Cover each of 25,425 villages in the state.

Focus on core strength of each village.

Average investment of Rs. 1.20 Crore per village.

Total investment of Rs. 30,000 Crore.

Build community assets and individual capabilities.

The state govt. of Assam has distributed 9,135 tractors with a total expenditure of Rs. 454.53 crore under Chief Minister’s Samagra Gramya Unnayan Yojana for the benefit of agriculture sector.

Below are the main objectives of the scheme.

Rural income generation

Convergence of departmental schemes

Improving irrigation facilities

Skill development

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Special attention to 6th scheduled councils, PRI’s, ULB’s

Special emphasis on Sericulture, Bamboo cane products, high-yield variety seeds, spices, vegetable and organic farming.

Village base eco and rural tourism

As per the assessment survey taken between 2002-03 and 2012-13, the growth in the income of the farmers was only 0.88% per year in Assam against a national average of 5.2%. Hence the Assam government has decided to launch the CMSGUY for holistic development of the villages within a short span by making huge investments in rural areas across the state.

Assam Mukhya Mantri Krishi Sa Sajuli Yojana 2021

Mukhya Mantri Krishi Sa Sajuli Yojana 2021 is a new scheme for farmers launched by the Assam government. The main purpose of launching Mukhyamantri Krishi Sa Sajuli Yozana or CM Farm Tool Scheme for farmers is their holistic development by implementing several farm mechanization schemes.

Eligibility for Assam Mukhyamantri Krishi Sa-Sajuli Yojana

Candidates who fulfill the below criteria are eligible to apply for Assam Mukhyamantri Krishi Sa-Sajuli Yojana.

Small and Marginal farmers with minimum age of 21 years are eligible for the scheme.
Applicant should be a resident farmer of Assam.
Tenant farmers or share croppers with minimum cultivation area of of 1 Acre / 3 Bigha may also be considered eligible under the scheme.
Only one farmer per family is allowed to apply under the scheme.
The applicant farmer must have an active saving bank account where he/she can receive the funds through Direct Benefit Transfer Mode.
All Kisan Credit Card holders are eligible to apply under the scheme.
The applicant should be involved in farm cultivation for at least 3 consecutive years to be eligible for the scheme.

Krishi Sa-Sajuli Yojana – Beneficiary List Selection

The selection of the beneficiaries is subject to the eligibility of the applicants. In the first step, agriculture department will invite applications from farmers by publishing the advertisements for the scheme. The applicants will be collected by the AEA’s along with the bank account details of the applicants.

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The list of beneficiaries will be prepared GP (Gaon Panchayat)/VDP wise. The Gaon Panchayat wise list of beneficiaries may be compiled by the ADO’s concerned and be placed before the district level committee after scrutiny. After this, the list of beneficiaries from AEAs/ ADOS will be approved by the DLC.

After the final approval, the beneficiary list of Krishi Sa-Sajuli Yojana will be shared with the Director of Agriculture along with the bank account details and mobile numbers of the applicants.

Reservation under Krishi Sa-Sajuli Yojana

Reservation to SC/ST farmers will be provided as per State Reservation Act i.e

SC-7%

ST(P)-10%

ST(H) – 5%

Assam Aamaar Aalohi (Livelihood Scheme)

Aamaar Aalohi (Livelihood Scheme) is framed by the Tourism Department, Govt. of Assam. Aamaar Aalohi Rural Homestay Scheme aims to give a new dimension and thrust to the rural home stay facilities in the state of Assam. This scheme aims to create self-employment opportunities for educated youths in rural and semi-urban areas of tourism potential and importance.

Assam Tourism Development Corporation invites two types of application:

New Homestays (subsidised projects)

Existing Homestays

Incentives for Existing Homestay units

The existing Homestay units will get the following incentives under the Aamaar Aalohi scheme:-

Recognition through online-registration as an authorized tourist establishment register under Assam Tourism;

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Professional advice for improvements of homestays & guest services by experts in the respective fields;

Free training on homestay and hospitality services, basic accounts, attitude building, marketing etc.;

Free publicity and marketing opportunities through official websites of Assam Tourism;

Listing the accommodation guide and homestay directory published by Assam Tourism;

Free of charge listing in the periodically printed brochures and advertisement;

Free marketing opportunities via national and international information counters, travel fairs, tourist directories, guidebooks and social media networks;

Allow eligible homestay unit to display the Assam Tourism homestay logo as a registered establishment;

Familiarization trips (FAM trips) for homestay operators to famous homestay organization / tourism entities promoting rural, cultural and nature tourism.

Encourage local communities to adopt organic farming techniques.

Incentives for Newly Setup Homestay Units

For newly set-up Homestay units will be entitled for the following incentives / financial assistance under the scheme along with the aforesaid incentives under existing homestay units above:

(a) Limit of subsidy for the type of construction:-

Assam type cottage (type 1): Assistance of 80% of the project cost as per Annexure IV;

Stilted Assam type cottage (type 2): Assistance of 80% of the project cost as per Annexure V;

(b) The remaining fund (20% of project cost) would have to be arranged from bank or such other sources by the beneficiaries.

(c) The Govt. of Assam or ATDC Ltd. shall not provide any guarantee for the loan components nor shall be liable for any financial liability of the beneficiaries in any manner under this scheme at any point of time to any party for any reason whatsoever.

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Release of Financial Assistance and Time Limit for Completion

The State Govt. assistance 80% would be released in the following phases:

20% of the assistance immediately after selection, approval and registration of the units and on production of documentary proof of arrangement of the remaining fund for the project apart from the subsidy / margin money assistance.

The second instalment of 50% would be released after spot verification by authorized officials and on being satisfied that construction up a reasonable extent have been completed with the first installment from his/her own contribution of 20% of the project.

Final instalment of 30% would be released after completion of the civil works and the unit is ready for commissioning.

The time limit for completion of the units would be 6 months from the date of release of the 1st instalment.

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Only selected new homestays can avail subsidy from Tourism Department, Govt. of Assam to build the home of an amount of approx. Rs. 6 lakh (Assam type) and approx. Rs. 8 lakh (stilted Assam type). Assam Tourism Development Corporation invites applications time to time. The all types of applied homestays are selected after scrutinised and personally inspected under a Selection Committee of Tourism Department.

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Welfare schemes for ST

Pre-matric Scholarship for ST: This is a State Govt. scheme where 100% fund is provided by the Govt. of Assam.

Assam Bikash Yojana & CM’s Special Employment Generation Programme: Under the scheme, fund Programme were allocated for self employment of ST unemployed youths. Various schemes are taken up for generating self employment to ST unemployed youths.

Grants to patients suffering from TB/Cancer and other malignant diseases: The aim of the scheme is to provide financial assistance to those poor scheduled tribe patient was who are suffering from TB/Cancer and other malignant diseases and unable to bear the cost of medicines for their treatment.

Grants to ST meritorious students: under this scheme financial incentive is provided to meritorious ST students who have secured 60% and above in HSLC and HSSLC examinations.

Stipend for Craftsman Training: This is a state scheme and stipend is provided to the students of Scheduled Tribes who are admitted in the ITI’s of Assam.

Post-matric Scholarship: The scheme is meant for ST(P) students. It is a centrally sponsored scheme fully funded by the Govt. of India.

Book Bank for Medical, Engineering and Agriculture etc. students: Scheduled Tribe student studying in various technical institution are provided books under this scheme on 50:50 cost sharing basis between Govt. of India and Govt. of Assam.

Construction of Boy’s Hostel: This is a centrally sponsored scheme on 50:50 cost sharing basis between Govt. of India and the State Govt.

Construction of Girls Hostel: This is a centrally sponsored scheme with 100% central dund.

Minor Forest produce: Under this scheme, fund is released by Govt. of India to State Tribal Development Corporations i.e. APTDC Ltd. to provide incentives to tribal who are engaged in procuring and sale of minor forest produce.

Coaching to ST for Central/State Civil Service Examination & other allied services: Vocational Training through VTCs (Central Sector Scheme)- There are 10 Nos. of VTC in different district which are run by the ATDA, where training is provided to 1000 nos. of trainees in five nos. of trades every year. – Up-gradation of merit of ST students: This is a central sector scheme with 100% central assistance from Govt. of India. The objective of the scheme is to up- grade the merit of ST student through special tuition in various Educational Institutions in Assam.

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Welfare Schemes for SC

SCA to SCSP: Special central assistance is a 100% additive grant given by the Govt. of India for economic up-liftment of BPL scheduled caste families and to take up infrastructure development schemes to fill up the critical gap. With this aim in view the Directorate of Welfare of Scheduled Castes is giving financial assistance of Rs. 10,000.00 (ten thousand) to each of the SC BPL Families Oriented Income Generation Schemes (FOIGS) and 10% of the released amount is utilized for infrastructure Dev. Schemes.

Scheme for AIRT & SC: The main function of the Directorate of Assam Institute of Research for Tribals and Scheduled Castes are: Research, Evaluation, Training and Planning. Moreover there are some subsidiary scheme like publication of books. Annual Research Bulletin, Seminar workshop on ST problems for the State. Grants-in-aid to authors for publication of books on SC/ST. Award of Doctoral and Post-Doctoral fellowship, maintenance of well equipped reference library.

Pre-matric Scholarship: This is a state plan scheme where 100% fund is provided by the Govt. of Assam.

Stipend for Craftsman Training in ITI: This is a state plan scheme and stipend is provided to the students of Scheduled Castes people in Assam as per Govt. Rules and Procedures who are admitted in the different ITI’s of Assam.

Grants to Non-Government Educational Institutions: Under this state plan scheme, financial assistance to Non-Govt. Institutions are given for purchase of furniture, repairing, construction of school building etc. which are engaged in development and promotion of education for SC people.

Grants to cultural activities including educational tour: This is a state plan scheme. The objective of this scheme is the promotion of cultural interest and providing opportunities to SC students for acquiring knowledge by undertaking educational tours within and outside the state.

Grants to Non-Official organization: The purpose of the scheme is to encourage non- official organization doing welfare works amongst SC people.

Financial incentive to inter-castes marriage: The objective of the scheme is to eliminate caste discrimination in society. Cash award is given to each married couple and their parents when such marriages take place in between general castes and scheduled castes people.

Computer Training to SC youth: Under the scheme, computer training is provided to the unemployed educated SC youths for their self employment.

Self Help scheme for SC unemployed youth: The aim of the scheme is to provide equipments to SC unemployed youth for their self employment.

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Self Help scheme for SC Women: The aim of the scheme is to uplift the economic condition of the BPL SC Women by providing Sewing Machine, Embroidery Machine, Cotton Yarn etc. free of cost amongst the SC unemployed women for their self employment.

Grants to patients suffering from TB/Cancer and other malignant diseases: The aim of the scheme is to provide financial assistance to those poor scheduled caste patient was who are suffering from TB/Cancer and other malignant diseases and unable to bear the cost of medicines for their treatment.

Construction of School Building/Community Hall: The objective of the scheme is for social upliftment of SC pre-dominant areas providing grants for construction of school building and community hall.

Financial incentive to meritorious SC Girls students: The aim of the scheme is to encourage higher education among SC women. Financial incentive @ Rs.10,000/- (ten thousand) are provided to SC Girls students who are securing 60% and above marks in HSLC or HS Examination.

Assam Bikash Yojana & CM’s Special Employment Generation Programme: Under the scheme, fund Programme were allocated for self employment of SC unemployed youths. Various schemes are taken up for generating self employment to SC unemployed youths.

Construction of Dr.B.R.Ambedkar Bhawan: The scheme was introduced for construction of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Bhawan in all District/Sub-Division HQ with a facility of Conference Hall and Guest House for SC people.

Computer to SC Trainees: This scheme is newly adopted by this Directorate during the year 2010-11 for providing computer sets to SC Trainees.

Share capital contribution to Assam State Dev. Corporation for SC Ltd.: Assam State Dev. Corporation for SC Ltd. is jointly owned by the State and Central Govt. under share capital contribution to this corporation on 51%: 49%.

Self Employment schemes for manual scavengers: The aim of the scheme is to provide equipments to family of the manual scavengers for their self employment.

Construction of Boys Hostel: This is a centrally sponsored scheme on 50:50 cost share basis. Objective of the scheme is to provide hostel facilities for SC Boys student. The scheme is presently named as, Babu Jagjiban Ram CChatrabas Yojana.

Construction of Girls Hostel: It is a centrally sponsored scheme with 100% central assistance. The scheme is now name as, Babu Jagjiban Ram Chatrabas Yojana.

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Pre-matric Scholarship for the Children of those parents engaged in cleaning related occupations having health hazard: This is a centrally sponsored scheme on 50:50 cost sharing basis between State and Central Government.

Prevention of Atrocities on SC and STS: The scheme aims to aware and monitor the atrocities on SC & STS under Prevention of Atrocities Act, 1989.

Coaching and Allied scheme for SC: This is a centrally sponsored scheme on 50:50 cost sharing basis between central & State Govt. The objective of the scheme is to provide coaching facilities to SC candidates who are going to appear in all India level competitive examination.

Post-Matric Scholarship & Book-Bank: The scheme is single largest intervention by the Govt. of India for educational empowerment of the SC students.

Up-gradation of merit of SC students: This is a central sector scheme with 100% central assistance from Govt. of India. The objective of the scheme is to up-grade the merit of Sc student through special tuition in various Educational Institutions in Assam.

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Schemes for Welfare of O.B.C

Family Oriented Income Generating Scheme: Under this scheme inputs are provided to BPL OBC families for upliftment of their economic condition and to create self employment.

Development Council: Fund is released to various development councils as GIA under state plan for implementation of various development schemes.

Assam Bikash Yojana & CM’s Special Employment Generation Programme: Under the scheme, fund Programme were allocated for self employment of OBC unemployed youths. Various schemes are taken up for generating self employment to OBC unemployed youths.

Self Employment for the trainees under Skill Development Programme belonging to OBC.

Pre-matric Scholarship: This is a centrally sponsored scheme on 50:50 cost sharing basis between Govt. of India and the State Govt.

Post-matric Scholarship: It is a centrally sponsored scheme where 100% fund is provided by the Govt. of India.

Construction of Boys & Girls Hostel: It is centrally sponsored scheme on 50:50 cost sharing basis between Govt. of India and the State Govt.

Welfare Schemes for Woman

The Social Welfare Department has stepped forward to take initiatives for the welfare of woman. The following schemes have been initiated to work towards the betterment of women in the state of Assam:

Swanirbhar Nari Atmanirbhar Assam Scheme 2021

Assam government has launched Swanirbhar Nari Atmanirbhar Assam Scheme 2021 to empower economically disadvantaged women.

The new scheme aims to create more than 3.72 lakh sustainable individual and 822 community assets. This Swanirbhar Naari Atmanirbhar Asom Scheme would benefit around 4 lakh families in 1st phase.

The Swanirbhar Nari Atmanirbhar Assam Scheme would be implemented under MGNREGA with convergence of schemes of various state departments and missions. It includes Assam State Rural Livelihood Mission, Agriculture & Horticulture, Fishery, Environment & Forest, Handloom and Textiles, Sericulture, Veterinary and Animal Husbandry etc.

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Need for Swamirbhar Naari Scheme

Many women personalities like Sati Joymati, Sati Sadhani, Kanaklata Baruah, Mangri Orang, Indira Miri have exemplified women power in the Assam state. CM mentioned that women of the Assam state are very hardworking and even urged them to show utmost commitment in implementing the Swanirbhar Naari – Atmanirbhar Asom Scheme.

Chief Minister called upon PRI representatives to extend full cooperation to the women SHG beneficiaries. It would enable PRI representatives to perform their duties with honesty, sincerity and dedication.

Assam govt. will take strict action against panchayats found to be involved in corrupt practices, anomalies or negligence while implementing the scheme.

Assam Indira Miri Universal Widow Pension Scheme

The state govt. of Assam has launched Indira Miri Universal Widow Pension Yojana to support widows. This Widow Pension Scheme in Assam will support the family tide over the financial vacuum which is created by the loss of bread earner of the family which is usually male member of family.

Under this pension scheme for widows in Assam, all the women upto the age of 45 years who loses her husband will get lump sum amount of Rs. 25,000 as immediate family assistance. As a supplement to the one time grant to widows below 45 years of age, Assam government has gone a step further and introduced a monthly pension of Rs. 250 under the Indira Miri Universal Widow Pension. Women can avail of this benefit until they attain an age of 60 years, after which they come under the ambit of our old age pension.

Indira Miri Universal Widow Pension Scheme is named after Smt. Indira Miri (popularly known as Mereng). She was a Padma Shri award winner for promoting education in North East Frontier Agency.

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SABLA (Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Girls)

The Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Girls (RGSEAG) Sabla is a centrally sponsored program of Government of India initiated on April 1, 2011 under Ministry of Women and Child Development.

The objectives of the program are:

Enable the Adolescent girls for self-development and empowerment
Improve their nutrition and health status.
Promote awareness about health, hygiene, nutrition, adolescent reproductive and sexual health (ARSH) and family and child care.
Upgrade home-based skills, life skills and integrate with the National Skill Development Program (NSDP) for vocational skills.
Mainstream out of school adolescent girls into formal/non formal education.
Provide information/guidance about existing public services such as PHC, CHC, Post Office, Bank, Police Station, etc.

Ujjwala New Scheme

A Comprehensive Scheme for Prevention of Trafficking and Rescue, Rehabilitation and Re-Integration of Victims of Trafficking for Commercial Sexual Exploitation.

OBJECTIVE OF THE SCHEME

To prevent trafficking of women and children for commercial sexual exploitation through social mobilization and involvement of local communities, awareness generation programmes, generate public discourse through workshops/seminars and such events and any other innovative activity.
To facilitate rescue of victims from the place of their exploitation and place them in safe custody.
To provide rehabilitation services both immediate and long-term to the victims by providing basic amenities/needs such as shelter, food, clothing, medical treatment including counselling, legal aid and guidance and vocational training.
To facilitate reintegration of the victims into the family and society at large
To facilitate repatriation of cross-border victims to their country of origin

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Woman Helpline

The Scheme of Universalisation of Women Helpline is intended to provide 24 hours immediate and emergency response to women affected by violence through referral (linking with appropriate authority such as police, One Stop Centre, hospital) and information about women related government schemes programs across the country through a single uniform number.

Working Women Hostel

The Working Women Hostel Scheme has been revised to promote availability of safe and conveniently located accommodation for working women who need to live away from their families due to professional commitments.

Objectives

The objective of the scheme is to promote availability of safe and conveniently located accommodation for working women, with day care facility for their children, wherever possible, in urban, semi urban, or even rural areas where employment opportunity for women exist. To achieve this objective, the scheme will assist projects for construction of new hostel buildings, expansion of existing hostel buildings and hostel buildings in rented premises.

The working women’s hostel projects being assisted under this scheme shall be made available to all working women without any distinction with respect to caste, religion, marital status etc., subject to norms prescribed under the scheme. While the projects assisted under this scheme are meant for working women, women under training for job may also be accommodated in such hostels subject to the condition that taken together, such trainees should not occupy more than 30% of the total capacity the hostel and they may be accommodated in the hostels only when adequate numbers of working women are not available. Children of working women, up to the age of 18 years for girls and up to the age of 5 years for boys may be accommodated in such hostel with their mothers.

Assam Old Age Pension Scheme 2021

The Assam Old Age Pension Scheme represents a significant step towards the fulfillment of the Directive Principles in Article 41 of the Constitution. The programme introduced a State Wide Policy for Social Assistance for the poor and aims at ensuring minimum statewide standard for social assistance in addition to the benefits that govt. is currently providing or might provide in future.

Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme (IGNOAPS) Assam

Minimum eligible age – 60 years

Monthly pension – Rs. 200 for persons between 60 years and 79 years of age.

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For persons who are 80 years and above the pension is Rs. 500 per month.

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Assam Deen Dayal Divyangjan Sahajya Scheme 2021

The honorable Vice President of India has launched Deen Dayal Divyangjan Sahajya Scheme for Person with disabilities (PWDs) in Assam. This scheme will provide benefits to the all the disabled people residing in the state. Subsequently, govt will give a one time financial assistance of Rs. 5000 to the differently abled people for their treatment. Accordingly, this scheme will benefit around 4.5 lakh divyangjan residing in the state.

Important Features of Deen Dayal Divyangjan Sahajya Scheme

The highlights and details of this Deen Dayal Divyangjan Sahajya Scheme for divyangjan are as follows:

This scheme will focus on changing the attitude of society towards person with disabilities and also to raise their living standards.

Accordingly, the state govt. is going to provide a single time grant of Rs 5000 to PWDs for their treatment purpose.

Moreover, the state govt. will focus on providing loans to the disabled persons in a hassle-free manner through banks and other financial institutions.

These PWDs will be given access to various public places to provide opportunities to them.

Subsequently, the entire society should encourage disabled persons in all possible ways.

Assam govt. will make sure that beneficiaries of Deen Dayal Divyangjan Sahajya Scheme will receive the due amount of various schemes introduced for them on specified time.

In the initial phase, this scheme will benefit around 1 lakh divyang people.

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Furthermore, the state govt. has allotted a budget of Rs. 250 crores for the successful implementation of this scheme.

The state govt. also decides to take the Pranam Act forward. Under this act, all the employees of govt. can contribute money for the welfare of these Persons with disabilities (PWDs). This scheme is to turn this neglected sections into privileged category.

Key Health Schemes Launched by Assam Government

‘Maram’ (Assamese for financial help to patients)

‘Mamata’ (Assamese for new born and mothers)

‘Majoni (Assamese for little girls)

A newborn girl child gets a fixed deposit instrument worth US$ 109.

A would-be mother gets US$ 10.4 for each of the first two check- ups.

‘Morom‘ (Assamese for compassion)

Patients in medical college hospitals receive US$ 1.6 per day for seven days.

Patients in civil hospitals get US$ 1.04 per day for five days.

‘Mamoni’

Pregnant women are encouraged to undergo three ante-natal checkups to detect any danger signs during pregnancy. During the 2nd & 3rd ante-natal checkups, pregnant women receive US$ 18.4 for expenses related to nutritional food & supplements.

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Part E: Environment and Disaster Management of Assam

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Environment and Disaster Management

Syllabus:

Bio-diversity, Environment, Security and Disaster Management with relevant emphasis on State of Assam.

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Biodiversity

Biodiversity is “the variety of all living things, and the systems which connect them.” This includes all the planet’s different plants, animals and micro organisms, plus the genetic information they contain and the ecosystems of which they are a part. It is the result of millions of years of evolution.

Biodiversity does not simply translate into species numbers; it also includes genetic and ecological diversity. At the smallest scale, genetic diversity within species includes important variations in such traits as resistance to different parasites.

Species diversity refers to the variation within populations and to the differences between species. At the largest scale, there are many different habitats and ecosystems, each of which cycles water and key elements differently.

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Why is biodiversity so important?

Everything in the natural world is connected. This means that everything we do as humans affects biodiversity, and biodiversity affects us.

In the world of which we are a part, the more variety the better. This provides protection against things going wrong. Diverse ecosystems, and therefore diverse species and genes, make for a healthier, more resilient planet.

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Biodiversity enhances an ecosystem’s ability to do these essential ecological processes:

oxygen production

form and build healthy soils

filter water on its way to the sea

pollinate crops and plants generally

store and recycle nutrients

resist feral invasion

A lessening of biodiversity in an ecosystem weakens the ability of that system to survive and perform the ecosystem services that we as humans benefit so much from. Basically, there are three types of biodiversity: species, ecosystem and genetic diversity.

Overall sustainability and growth

All ecosystems, and biological systems on Earth are connected to each other, and no one process functions on its own. In the same way, all organisms within a region rely on each other to be in balance and to maintain a healthy population and environment.

By having a biologically diverse ecosystem or, more widely, a diverse planet, the planet and all its biomes are able to run at their optimal, peak performance. Productivity is high, animal populations are healthy, and the system maintains balance. When this happens, not only does the system run well, but it is not as easily susceptible to collapse.

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While there are more than one type of cow that are raised and farmed for meat or dairy, it is well known that certain breeds of cattle are more highly desirable for the beef industry than others.

Whether this is because that breed is more high producing, or less suceptible to disease, by maintianing one breed of cattle, a herd becomes far more at risk of external factors like sickness.

Similarly, while the loss of biodiversity can leave an area vulnerable, the abundance of it can provide opportunity. Research is constantly growing, investigating all sorts of rare plants, animals and micro organisms which may be helpful to humans. This usually takes the form of medical science related research, and cures and vaccines have been developed using some of the most unlikely elements, plants or animal by-products.

Without the use of these rare parts of various ecosystems, such cures would not be possible. When biodiversity is lost, so too is the opportunity to find uses for these plants or animals that could be life changing to society as a whole.

Threats To Biodiversity

When understanding the need for biodiversity, it is important to understand factors which pose threats to this diversity. On Earth, unfortunately threats to biodiversity have increased over the last few decades, and as a result, some diversity has already been permanently lost.

Cases of extinct species of animals and plants have led to an overall decrease in the diversity of the planet. At this point in history, diversity is declining faster than ever before. Species are becoming extinct roughly 1,000 times faster now, in the 21st century, than they have at any point previously in Earth’s history, and this is directly due to human activity.

Causes of Loss of Biodiversity

Some of the major causes that have resulted in the loss of biodiversity are mentioned

The natural habitat of the ecosystem plays a major role in maintaining the ecological balance. Several trees are cut down every year for the construction of industries, highways, settlement,s and so on to fulfill the human demands. As a result, the species become the target of predation and eventually dies.
Hunting of the wild animals for commercialization of their products has been a major reason for the loss of biodiversity. Since the year 2013, more than 90 rhinos were killed by the poachers for their horns and as per the records of 2016, 9 Indian Rhinos have been killed in Kaziranga National Park of Assam.

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The exploitation of the medicinal plants for several laboratory purposes has resulted in the extinction of these species. Also, several animals are sacrificed for various research in science and medicine.
Natural calamities like floods, earthquakes, forest fires also lead to the loss of biodiversity.
Air pollution has a major role in the loss of biodiversity. Rapid cutting down of the trees has resulted in the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere leading to climate change. As a result, there has been an increase in the land and ocean temperature leaving an inimical impact on species.

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Biodiversity of Assam

The biodiversity of Assam, a state in North-East India, makes it a biological hotspot with many rare and endemic plant and animal species. The greatest success in recent years has been the conservation of the Indian rhinoceros at the Kaziranga National Park, but a rapid increase in human population in Assam threatens many plants and animals and their natural habitats.

The rhinoceros, tiger, deer or chital, swamp deer or dolhorina, clouded leopard, hoolock gibbon, pygmy hog or nol-gahori (Porcula salvania), hispid hare, golden langur (Trachypithecus geei), golden cat, giant civet, binturong, hog badger, porcupine, and civet are found in Assam. Moreover, there are abundant numbers of Gangetic dolphins, mongooses, giant squirrels and pythons. The largest population of wild water buffalo anywhere is in Assam.

The State of Assam is a constituent unit of the Eastern Himalayan Biodiversity Region; one of the two biodiversity “Hot Spots” in the country. Located in the transitional zone between the Indian, Indo-Malaysian and Indo-Chinese biographical regions, Assam has varied habitats for diverse forms of life.

ANIMAL DIVERSITY

Assam is part of the transitional zone between the Indian, Indo- Malayan and Indo- Chinese Biographical regions which provides the gateway for spread of both oriental and Palaearctic fauna to other parts of the country. Favourable climate, topographic and edaphic factors support luxuriant growth of diverse plant communities and create varied habitats. The forest as well as extensive network of river systems and swamps, marshes and wetlands provides ideal conditions and suitable habitat for sustenance of wide variety of fauna with existence of one of the most diverse faunal population mammals, primates, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, molluscs, birds, butterflies, moths etc.

Mammalian diversity:

Assam forms the western most boundaries for the Indo-Chinese species including primates and the easternmost limit of several peninsular mammalian fauna. The distributional extent of several Indian has terminated in Assam plains.

The distributional range of several Indo-Chinese fauna gets its sustenance from this region. Assam is home to all the primate species found in the region. Assam’s mammalian diversity is represented by 193 species which are widely distributed in this region. But of late some of the species have their distribution limited to isolated pockets and protected areas. For example: Great Indian One-Horned Rhinoceros, Tiger, Bears, Squirrel, Wild Asiatic Water Buffalo, Eastern Swamp Deer, Elephants, Gaur, Sambar, Indian Muntjac, Wild Boar, Hog Deer, Jungle Cat, Leopard Cat, Hispid Hare (rare), Indian Gray Mongoose, Small Indian Mongooses, Large Indian Civet, Small Indian Civets, Bengal Fox, Golden Jackal, Sloth Bear,

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Indian Pangolins, Chinese Pangolin, Hog Badger, Chinese Ferret Badgers, Parti-coloured Flying Squirrel, Gangetic Dolphin, Wild Pig, Pigmy Hog, Barking Deer, Himalayan Black Bear, Porcupine, Burmese Ferret Badger, Sloth Bear, Wild Dog (Dhole), Leopard, Clouded Leopard, Binturong, Golden Cat, Himalayan Palm Civet, Common Palm Civet, Fishing Cat, Feral Horses, Marbled cat, Golden cat, Spotted linsang, Binturong, Crab eating mongoose, Ferret badger, Hog badger, Hoary bamboo rat, Bay bamboo rat, Clawless otter, Stone marlin.

Fauna…… No. of Species

Primates: 9 (Out of 15 Indian primate species 9 are found in Assam)

Birds: 950 (State is home to 53.5% of the bird species found in the Indian Sub- Continent, 17 species of birds are endemic to Assam) 45 species of birds from Assam find mention in the Indian Red Data Book.

Migratory Birds: 280

Amphibians: Assam and other parts of the N.E. region have 70 species of Amphibions reported from the region which 60+ species are found in Assam. Gangenophis fulleri and Ichthyphis garoensis are endemic to Assam.

Butterflies: Around 1500 species of butterflies are reported from India of which nearly half are reported from Assam and N.E. India.

Moths: About 387 species of moths are reported in the state.

Reptiles: 116 (19 species of tortoises and 77 species of snakes and lizards are found in the state)

Mulluscan: 39 species of freshwater snails have been reported from Assam of which 10 species are used as food.

Fish: 185 (25 species are identified as Threatened)

Mosquito: 156

(Source: Environment and Forest Department, Assam)

Butterfly and Moths Diversity:

These most beautiful creatures on earth with around 1500 species of butterflies are reported from India of which nearly half are reported from Assam and N.E. India. The Swallowtail butterflies occupy an important place and the IUCN has identified the entire N.E. Region as Swallowtail rich zone. Butterflies play an important role in pollination of plants and besides being important aesthetically they play important role in biodiversity conservation. About 387 species of moths are reported and most of the moth’s species are distributed throughout the State.

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Name of Animals …Year Census…….. Number of Animals

Elephant 2002 …….5246

2008 ……5281

2009 ……5620

Tiger 1997 ……..457

2000 …….354

2009 …….143

Rhino 2006 ……2006

2009 …..2201

2011 ……2503

Leopard 1993 ……239

2000 …….248

Any others-Primate 2009 …….127502

(i) Rhesus Macaque .2009….. 72674

(ii) Assamese Macaque 2009 …..30866

(iii) Slow Loris 2009 ……431

(iv) Pig Tailed Macaque 2009 ………649

(v) Capped Langur 2009 ……17813

(vi) Golden Langur 2009 …….2772

(vii) Hoolock Gibbon 2009 …….1517

(viii) Stumptailed Macaque 2009 ……648

(ix) Phayre’s leaf Monkey/Spectacled Langur 2009 ….132

(Source: Statistical Handbook of Assam, 2013)

Vegetation in Assam is primarily of tropical type covering areas of evergreeen, semi-green and decidu us forests and grasslands.

There are 3,107 species of flowering plants, a good number of medicinal plants, including endangered and endemic species.

The state is also rich in bamboo and cane diversity, having 42 species of bamboo and 14 species of cane spread over the vast area.

About 192 species of orchids are distributed in the plains and hilly areas of the state while a large part of the state stands covered by wetlands rich in both flowering and non-flowering varities of 102 species.

Not only in terms of plant diversity, the state is also rich in animal diversity having forests which are extremely rich and diverse with wide varieties of primates, carnivores, herbivores and birds.

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About 190 species of mammals and more than 800 subspecies of birds have so far been reported from the state while the wildlife areas of the state house nearly 44 types of endangered and rare species of mammals and 14 types of reptiles and amphibia.

Altogether around 230 forms of species of primates are present in Assam, which also includes the only ape of India, the Hoolock gibbon and eight cat species.

Assam also has the distinction of housing the entire known world population of pygmy hog, 75 per cent of the world population of the Indian rhinoceros and wild buffalo and a sizeable number of Asian elephant and tigers.

Reptiles also constitute an important vertebrate group and with its varied topography and habitat, the state supports rich species of reptilian fauna.

Assam has also diversified amphibian fauna and so far 185 species belonging to 98 genes under 34 families are recorded of which 33 are endemic to the region while 25 species have been found to be threatened.

Another notable feature is that the state also provides a home to more than half of about 1,500 species of butterflies found in the country.

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Disaster management

A disaster refers to a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence from natural or man- made causes, which is beyond the coping capacity of the affected community.

Disaster Management involves a continuous and integrated process of planning, organising, coordinating and implementing measures which are necessary or expedient for:

Prevention of danger or threat of any disaster.

Mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity or consequences.

Capacity building including research and knowledge management.

Preparedness to deal with any disaster.

Prompt response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster.

Assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any disaster.

Evacuation, rescue and relief.

Rehabilitation and reconstruction.

A typical DM continuum comprises six elements; the pre-disaster phase includes prevention, mitigation and preparedness, while the post-disaster phase includes response, rehabilitation, reconstruction and recovery.

A legal and institutional framework binds all these elements together. The Disaster Management Act of 2005 defines Disaster Management as an integrated process of planning, organizing, coordinating and implementing measures which are necessary for-

Prevention of threat of any disaster

Reduction of risk of any disaster or its consequences

Readiness to deal with any disast

Promptness in dealing with a disaster

Assessing the severity of the effects of any disaster

Rescue and relief

Rehabilitation and Reconstruction

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Types of disaster

Generally, disasters are of two types – natural and manmade. Based on the devastation, these are further classified into major/minor natural disaster and major/minor manmade disasters. Some of the disasters are listed in Table below.

Major natural disasters……… Minor natural disasters

Flood ……. Cold wave

Cyclone… Thundestorms

Drought…… Heat waves

Earthquake….. Mud slide, Storm

Major manmade disaster………. Minor manmade disaster

Setting of fires……….. Road/train accidents, riots

Epidemic………. Food poisoning

Deforestation…….. Industrial disaster/ crisis

Pollution due to prawn cultivation……. Environmental pollution

Chemical pollution.

Wars

Disasters can be classified into the following categories:

Water and Climate Disaster: Flood, hail storms, cloudburst, cyclones, heat waves, cold waves, droughts, hurricanes

Geological Disaster: Landslides, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes

Biological Disaster: Viral epidemics, pest attacks, cattle epidemic, and locust plagues

Industrial Disaster: Chemical and industrial accidents, mine shaft fires, oil spills,

Nuclear Disasters: Nuclear core meltdowns, radiation poisoning

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Man-made disasters: Urban and forest fires, oil spill, the collapse of huge building structures

Biological Disasters

Definition: The devastating effects caused by an enormous spread of a certain kind of living organism that may spread disease, viruses, or an infestation of plant, animal, or insect life on an epidemic or pandemic level.

Epidemic Level – Indicates a disaster that affects many people in a given area or community.
Pandemic Level – Indicates a disaster that affects a much larger region, sometimes an entire continent or even the whole planet. For example, the recent H1N1 or Swine Flu pandemic.

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Biological Disasters – Important points to remember

The nodal Ministry for handling epidemics – Ministry of Health and Family Welfare

Decision-making

Advisory body

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Emergency medical relief providing

The primary responsibility of dealing with biological disasters is with the State Governments. (Reason – Health is a State Subject).
The nodal agency for investigating outbreaks – National Institute of Communicable Diseases (NICD)
Nodal ministry for Biological Warfare – Ministry of Home Affairs (Biological warfare is the use of biological agents as an act of war).

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Legal Framework for Biological Disasters

The Epidemic Diseases Act was enacted in the year 1897. This Act does not provide any power to the centre to intervene in biological emergencies.
It has to be substituted by an Act that takes care of the prevailing and foreseeable public health needs including emergencies such as BT attacks and the use of biological weapons by an adversary, cross-border issues, and international spread of diseases.
It should give enough powers to the central and state governments and local authorities to act with impunity, notify affected areas, restrict movement or quarantine the affected area, enter any premises to take samples of suspected materials, and seal them.
The Act should also establish controls over biological sample transfer, biosecurity and biosafety of materials/laboratories.

Vulnerability Profile of India

India is vulnerable, in varying degrees, to a large number of disasters. Around 59% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of moderate to very high intensity.

About 12% (over 40 million hectares) of its land is prone to floods and river erosion. Close to 5,700 kms, out of the 7,516 kms long coastline is prone to cyclones and tsunamis.

68% of its cultivable area is vulnerable to droughts; and, the hilly areas are at risk from landslides and avalanches.

Moreover, India is also vulnerable to chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) emergencies and other man-made disasters.

Disaster risks in India are further compounded by increasing vulnerabilities related to changing demographics and socio-economic conditions, unplanned urbanization, development within high-risk zones, environmental degradation, climate change, geological hazards, epidemics and pandemics.

Clearly, all these contribute to a situation where disasters seriously threaten India’s economy, its population and sustainable development.

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Epidemic Diseases Act 1897:

Epidemic Diseases Act 1897 is an Act to provide for the better prevention of the spread of Dangerous Epidemic Diseases. The Colonial legislation framed during the plague of Bombay of 1897, Epidemic Diseases Act 1897 was rarely used before it found huge significance because of the Corona virus spread in 2020.

This act has only 4 sections in total and is probably one of the shortest acts in India. Some powers have been given to the State Governments under Section 2 of this Act while some powers have been given to the Central Government under Section 2 (A) to control an epidemic.

Section 3 deals with Penalty while Section 4 deals with the protection to persons acting under Act.

The Epidemic Diseases (Amendment) Ordinance 2020

The act was amended via the ordinance and provisions to punish those attacking doctors or health workers were added.

The ordinance allows for up to seven years of jail for attacking doctors or health workers (including ASHA workers). The offence will be cognizable and non-bailable.

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Assam: Disaster Risk profile

Assam is a multi-hazard State prone to floods, earthquake, storms and landslide besides manmade disasters. Also the State faces acute flood & erosion problem. Assam has a history of disasters ranging from large earthquakes to severe floods.

Earthquake

Earthquakes are one of the most destructive of natural hazards in the seismically active Assam. The State of Assam has experienced several devastating earthquakes in the past resulting in a large number of deaths and severe property damage.

Active seismicity of the North Eastern region has caused extensive landslides, rock falls on the hill slopes, subsidence and fissuring of ground in the valley, and changes in the course and configuration of river tributaries and Brahmaputra mainstream.

These changes, especially in river morphology have a significant impact on the hydrologic regime and vulnerability of the communities which are in its proximity and are dependent upon this natural system as their source of livelihood.

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Combined with this hazard, is the vulnerability profile of the towns and cities where the growth is haphazard and uncontrolled. Huge urban population combined with poor quality and illmaintained infrastructure, low quality building stock, and lower resilience of the high-density society increases the risks to earthquakes in the urban centres. Moreover, urban infrastructure is often designed and constructed without satisfying minimum safety standards.

As per the plate tectonics, Assam is in the eastern-most projection of the Indian Plate, where the plate is thrusting underneath the Eurasian Plate creating a subduction zone and the Himalayas. This led the state of Assam fall under the seismic zone V making the entire State prone to earthquake of moderate to very high intensity.

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The State has experienced two major earthquakes in the year 1897 and 1950. The intensities of these two earthquakes were 8.7 and 8.5 on the Richter scales respectively. Apart from these, there is a recorded history of around twenty destructive earthquakes which has affected this region in the past century. Earthquakes during non-instrumental period in Assam are in the year of 1548, 1596, 1601, 1642, 1663, 1696, 1756, 1772, 1838, & 1841.

Flood

All the rivers in Assam are liable to floods, mainly because they receive heavy rainfall within a short time. These rivers are in their early stage of maturity and are very active agents of erosion. The river waters collect a tremendous amount of silt and other debris and raise the level of the river beds. Therefore, it becomes impossible for the main channel to cope with the vast volume of water received during the rains.

Assam lies in the middle of the Brahmaputra and Barak basins. The Brahmaputra basin is one of the largest river basin in the northeast region of India. The river Brahmaputra originates from the semi-arid region of south Tibet. The Brahmaputra basin covers an area of 5,80,000 sq.km., out of which 70,634 sq.km. falls within Assam.

The Assam basin has a length of about 1540 km in east-west direction and a maximum width of 682 km. in north-south direction. Due to this geo- climatic condition, flood hazard risk is of concern in the Brahmaputra and Barak river basins in Assam.

The Brahmaputra Valley in Assam is one of the most hazard-prone regions of the country, with more than 40% of its land (3.2 million hectares) susceptible to flood damage. This is 9.4% of the country’s total flood-prone area. About 7% of land in the state’s 17 riverine districts has been lost because of river erosion over the past 50 years.

Flood hazard risk in the state is due to a blend of numerous natural and anthropogenic factors. The important cause for frequent occurrence of flood in this region is the extremely dynamic monsoon rainfall regime and the unique physiographic setting. The Brahmaputra valley had experienced major floods in 1954, 1962, 1966, 1972, 1974, 1978, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1996, 1998, 2000 and 2004.

According to Flood Hazard Atlas of Assam (ISRO, 2011), approximately 28.31% (22.21 lakh hectares) of land in state of Assam was affected by flood hazard between the period 1998 to 2007.

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Wind and Cyclone

The approach of the South West Tropical Monsoon is usually marked by strong winds, overcast skies accompanied by occasional thundershowers, hailstorms and at times by cyclones between April and May. Thunderstorms known as Bordoicila are frequent during the afternoons. Heavy downpour starts from June. At times these cyclones are devastating bringing colossal loss of human lives and damage to property.

Assam is situated in the north eastern direction of Bangladesh which is highly prone to cyclone/winds. Every year about 60% of the area affect by cyclone in Bangladesh. Due to the location aspect, districts like Dhubri, Gaolpara, Hailakandi, Chachar and Karbi Anglong are more prone to cyclone/winds. Districts namely Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Kamrup, Barpeta, Nalbari, Darrang, Sonitpur, Nagaon, Marigaon, Lakhimpur, Dhemaji, Sibsagar, Jorhat, Golaghat, Dibrugarh, Tinsukia and Karbi Anglong are likely to experience wind speed of 50 m/s whereas districts like Hailakandi, Karimganj and Cachar has wind speed of more than 55m/s and are more vulnerable to cyclonic storms. District very close to Bangladesh are in very high damage zone due to close proximity of Bay of Bengal (which is a cyclone basin). In this zone wind speed can reach up-to 55 m/s, can resultant into large scale damage.

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Landslides

Continued deforestation and demand for more and more agricultural land has also led to the destabilization of hill slopes which during the monsoons come down as landslides. In the recent past Guwahati city has witnessed a number of devastating landslides in its hilly belt. This is mainly because of inadequate urban land-use planning and the demand for land becomes such that communities build houses in areas which are environmentally unstable with risks of landslides.

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Landslides are sudden, short-lived geomorphic event that involves a rapid-to-slow descent of soil or rock in sloping terrains. Assam is located on the Himalayas, which are the recent foundation of mountain history and are geologically unstable; they are seismically very active therefore are still in the upheaval stage.

As mentioned in previous sections the state has a history of earthquakes. These earthquakes are usually accompanied by damaging landslides in the region.

Soil Erosion

Every year flooding and riverbank erosion cause devastating impacts. Riverbank erosion is a serious problem in Assam leading to displacement of people due to the disappearance of villages year after year. Total area eroded from 1954 till date is approximately 3,864,76 Hectares which means that about 7% of the land in the state’s 17 riverine districts has been lost due to river erosion in the last 50 years.

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Vulnerability to natural disasters combined with socio-economic vulnerability of the people living in the state pose a great challenge to the government machinery and underscores the need for a comprehensive plan for disaster preparedness and mitigation. Assam, is in fact one of the poorest State with approximately 36% of the population living below poverty line. The state also lags behind in many other development indicators. Several factors are responsible, including poor infrastructure, remoteness, and inability to minimize the impacts of damages and loss of productivity from frequent flooding & other natural calamities.

In the urban areas, due to rapid urbanization, demand for land becomes such that communities build houses in areas which are environmentally unstable with risks of landslides, flashfloods and cave-ins. Huge urban population combined with poor quality and ill-maintained infrastructure, low quality building stock, and lower resilience of the high-density society also increases the risks in the urban centres.

Erosion history of Assam indicates that between 1912 and 1996 around 868 sq. km. of land was lost to bank erosion; averaging to about 10.3 sq. km. of area lost per year.

The bank line of the Brahmaputra is extremely unstable consisting mostly of fine sands and silts. Large scale slumping of river banks does take place when the level falls after a flood. Further, the braided nature of the Brahmaputra adds unpredictability to erosion problem making it more serious.

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Institutional Set up

National Disaster Management Act, 2005

As per the Disaster Management Act of 2005 defines Disaster Management as an integrated process of planning, organizing, coordinating and implementing measures which are necessary for-

Prevention of threat of any disaster
Reduction of risk of any disaster or its consequences
Readiness to deal with any disaster
Promptness in dealing with a disaster
Assessing the severity of the effects of any disaster
Rescue and relief
Rehabilitation and Reconstruction

Stages in Disaster Management

Disaster Management efforts are geared towards disaster risk management.

Disaster Risk Management implies the systematic process of using administrative decisions, organisation, operational skills, and capacities to implement policies, strategies and coping capacities of the society and communities to lessen the impact of natural hazards and related environmental and technological disasters.

These comprise all forms all activities including structural and non- structural measures to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) adverse effects of hazards.

There are three key stages of activities in disaster management:

Before a disaster: to reduce the potential for human, material, or environmental losses

caused by hazards and to ensure that these losses are minimised when disaster strikes;

During a disaster: to ensure that the needs and provisions of victims are met to alleviate and minimise suffering; and

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After a disaster: to achieve rapid and durable recovery which does not reproduce the original vulnerable conditions.

The different phases of disaster management are represented in the disaster cycle diagram.

Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)

Disaster risk reduction is the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyse and reduce the causal factors of disasters.

Pre-Disaster risk reduction includes-

Mitigation: To eliminate or reduce the impacts and risks of hazards through proactive measures taken before an emergency or disaster occurs.

Preparedness: To take steps to prepare and reduce the effects of disasters.

Post-Disaster risk reduction includes-

Rescue: Providing warning, evacuation, search, rescue, providing immediate assistance.

Relife: To respond to communities who become victims of disaster, providing relief measures such as food packets, water, medicines, temporary accommodation, relief camps etc.

Recovery: This stage emphasises upon recovery of victims of disaster, recovery of damaged infrastructure and repair of the damages caused.

Disaster Risk Reduction in Sustainable Development Goals

Goal 1: Target 1.5, which relates to building the resilience of the poor, further strengthens the position of disaster risk reduction as a core development strategy for ending extreme poverty.

Goal 2: Target 2.4 supports the immediate need to advance actions in mainstreaming disaster risk reduction and climate adaptation into agriculture sector planning and investments in order to promote resilient livelihoods, food production and ecosystems.

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Goal 3: Target 3.d, relates to strengthening early warning and risk reduction of national and global health risks presents an opportunity to further actions to promote resilient health.

Goal 4: Target 4.7 focusing on building and upgrading education facilities and promoting education for sustainable development, contribute significantly to resilience-building in the education sector.’

Goal 6: Target 6.6, which relates to protecting and restoring water-related ecosystems, will significantly contribute to strengthening the resilience of communities to water-related hazards.

Goal 9: Targets 9.1 related to developing sustainable and resilient infrastructure development are vital not only to protect existing infrastructure but also future infrastructure investments.

Goal 11: Action targets under this goal (11.1, 11.3, 11.4, 11.5, 11.b and 11.c) focusing on upgrading urban slums, integrated urban planning, reducing social and economic impacts of disaster risk, building the resilience of the urban poor, adopting and implementing urban policies in line with the Sendai Framework and building sustainable and resilient urban infrastructure, are strategic opportunities to ensure increased capacity to support cities, to protect current and future development prospects and to build safer, more resilient cities throughout the world.

Goal 13: Target actions under this goal, focusing on strengthening resilience and adaptive capacity, capacity building and integrating climate change measures into policies and plans, awareness raising on climate adaptation and early warning (Targets 13.1 to 13.3 and 13.a to 13.b) provide opportunities to strengthen the integration between disaster and climate resilience and to protect broader development paths at all levels.

Goal 14: Target action 14.2, focusing on the sustainable management and protection as well as strengthening resilience of marine and coastal ecosystems, can contribute to reducing disaster risk and increase in demand for healthy marine and coastal ecosystems.

Goal 15: Target actions 15.1 to 15.4 and 15.9, focus on managing and restoring forests, combating land degradation and desertification, conserving mountain ecosystems and their biodiversity and integrating ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies.

These targets are also in line with the Sendai Framework focus on building environmental resilience through the inclusion of ecosystems in risk analysis and planning.

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Challenges in Disaster Risk Reduction

There are insufficient levels of implementation for each monitored activity. For example, Disaster risk management plans or a risk sensitive building codes exist but they are not enforced because of a lack of government capacity or public awareness.

There is lack of local capacities to implement disaster risk management. Weak capacity at the local levels undermines the implementation Disaster preparedness plans.

Absence of integration of climate change into Disaster risk management plans.

There is divergence of obtaining political and economic commitments due to other competing needs and priorities such as poverty reduction, social welfare, education etc. require greater attention and funding.

Due to poor coordination between stakeholders, there is inadequate access with respect to risk assessment, monitoring, early warning, disaster response and other Disaster related activities.

Insufficient investment in building disaster resilient strategies, also private sector are least contributors in the share of investment.

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Organisations and Policies related to Disaster Management Framework at National level

National Disaster Management Authority of India (NDMA)

It was established in 2005, under the Disaster Management Act 2005.

The objective of NDMA is, to build a safer and disaster resilient India by a holistic, proactive, technology driven and sustainable development strategy.

The NDMA is chaired by the Prime Minister of India and has a vice chairman with the status of Cabinet Minister and eight members with the status of Ministers of State.

The NDMA Secretariat is headed by a Secretary and deals with mitigation, preparedness, plans, reconstruction, community awareness and financial and administrative aspects.

National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP)

It was released in 2016, it is the first ever national plan prepared in the country for disaster management.

With National Disaster Management Plan (2016) India has aligned its National plan with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, to which India is a signatory.

The objective of the plan is to make India disaster resilient, achieve substantial disaster risk reduction. It aims to significantly decrease the losses of life, livelihoods, and assets in terms of economic, physical, social, cultural, and environmental. To maximize the ability to cope with disasters at all levels of administration as well as among communities.

State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)

At State level, State Disaster Management Authorities are established under Disaster Management Act 2005.

SDMA is chaired by the Chief Minister of the State and has not more than eight members who are appointed by the Chief Minister.

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The SDMA prepares the state disaster management plan and implements the National Disaster Management Plan.

District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)

Under Disaster Management Act 2005, every State government shall establish a DDMA for every district in the State.

The DDM Authority shall consist of:

Chairperson – the Collector or District Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner act as Chairperson of DDMA.

Co-Chairperson – is the elected representative of the local authority. In the Tribal Areas, the Chief Executive Member of the district council of autonomous district is the co-chairperson.

There are not more than seven other members in DDMA.

The Disaster Management Committee governed under District Magistrate will formulate village level disaster management plans for concern villages.

The DDMA makes District Disaster Management Plan and implements the state Disaster Management Plan.

National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)

The Section 44-45 of the Disaster Management Act, 2005 provides for constituting a National Disaster Response Force “for the purpose of specialist response to a threatening disaster situation or disaster” under a Director General to be appointed by the Central Government.[1] In September 2014 Kashmir-floods NDRF along with the armed forces played a vital role in rescuing the locals and tourists, for which NDRF was awarded by the government of India.

Government Initiatives for Disaster Management

India is a signatory to the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and is committed to achieve the priorities and objectives through systematic and institutional efforts.

With multi-dimensional initiatives and expertise, India is taking a leading role in strengthening regional cooperation among South Asian countries for reducing disasters.

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India is one of the participating countries and works closely with the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR). India has been working closely with many countries for the exchange of ideas and expertise in disaster management.

National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) defines the roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders including Central Ministries/ Departments, State Governments, UT Administrations, District Authorities and local self Governments.

Primary responsibility of disaster management rests with the States. The Central Government conducts regular mock drill, community training and awareness programme to prepare the civilian populations for disasters.

National Disaster Management Services (NDMS) was conceived by NDMA during 2015-16 for setting up of Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) Network connecting MHA, NDMA, NDRF etc. to provide the failsafe communication infrastructure and technical support for Emergency Operation Centre (EOC) operations across the country.

NDMA has taken an initiative on Earthquake Disaster Risk Indexing (EDRI) for 50 important cities and 1 District in Seismic Zone IV & V areas.

This kind of indexing will be helpful in comparing the overall risk across large number of cities or region and also in prioritization of cities to implement appropriate disaster mitigation measures.

NDMA through Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC) has prepared Upgraded Earthquake Hazard Maps and Atlases for the country for better planning and policies.

Leveraging the technology of geographic information system (GIS), NDMA have taken up a project for disaster risk management by establishing GIS Server and creation of database to integrate data obtained from various stakeholders to increase disaster preparedness, mitigation, damage assessment, response and relief management efforts.

Under the National School Safety Programme (NSSP), 8600 schools (with 200 schools in 43 districts in 22 States/UTs falling seismic zones IV and V) have been selected for providing training on school safety and disaster preparedness.

The Aapdamitra scheme of NDMA has provision for training 6000 community volunteers in disaster response in 30 most flood prone districts (200 volunteers per district) in 25 States.

The government has set up National Crisis Management Committee and Crisis Management Group.

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The state governments have set up state crisis management groups headed by chief secretaries, institutes of relief commissioners and state/district contingency plans.

The disaster management policy of the government stresses on forecasting and warning using advanced technologies, contingency agricultural planning to ensure availability of food grains, and preparedness and mitigation through specific programmes.

Project on deployment of Mobile Radiation Detection Systems (MRDS) to handle Radiological Hazards in Metros/Capital Cities/Big Cities in India to detect unclaimed radioactive materials/substances and save public from its hazardous effects.

Landslide Risk Mitigation Scheme (LRMS) envisages financial support for site specific Landslide Mitigation Projects recommended by landslide prone States, covering disaster prevention strategy, disaster mitigation and R&D in monitoring of critical Landslides thereby leading to the development of Early Warning System and Capacity Building initiatives. The Scheme is under preparation.

Core Group has been formed for Preparation of Guidelines to avert Boat Tragedies in India.

Issues in Disaster Management

There are significant gaps in preparedness on various aspects of risk management, particularly for catastrophic disasters like major earthquakes and floods.

Though all of India’s states have departments of disaster management or relief and rehabilitation, they are still poorly prepared to lend support in times of disasters, according to the UN Development Programme (UNDP).

In a number of recent disasters, 2010 mudslides in Leh, Sikkim earthquake in 2011 and the Uttarakhand floods of 2013, the level of preparedness was inadequate, leading to high levels of mortality and displacement of people.

Facilities such as emergency operations centres, emergency communications, and search and rescue teams are being made available but these systems and facilities need to be strengthened.

In India Disaster management is yet to be seen as an essential part of good governance and integral to development planning.

The preparedness at various levels are not people-oriented.

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India’s capacity to manage disaster risk is challenged by its size and huge population. The country is likely to have the greatest exposure of any nation in the world to extreme weather and natural disasters by 2030.

The northeast region is most at risk from earthquakes and lacks seismically secure infrastructure and buildings. It is also vulnerable to landslides, floods and erosion.

Flooding on the country’s plains is a regular occurrence, and although communities are resilient, the intensity of floods has reduced their capacity to adapt.

The local adaptation efforts driven solely by communities are no longer sufficient and additional, scientifically planned adaptation is needed, which will require government support.

The division of responsibilities under the Disaster Management Act is not very clear, resulting in its poor implementation. There also exists an overlap between the implementing agencies

Intense public and media scrutiny after disasters automatically leads to a higher priority being given to response, rather than risk reduction.

Furthermore, where risk-reduction activities are described, State Disaster Management Plans (SDMPs) does not institutionalise accountability mechanisms to ensure that departments follow these considerations in their own planning. As a result, risk-reduction activities are driven by schemes and external projects, rather than by guidelines in SDMPS.

Because risk-reduction needs are locations specific, this gap is an opportunity for stronger, locally led risk-reduction planning risk management in India

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Assam State Disaster Management Authority

The Assam State Disaster Management Authority is constituted under the chairmanship of the Chief Minister and other members will ensure interdepartmental coordination covering all aspects of DM. The State Authority has the responsibility of laying down policies and plans for DM in the State, recommend the provision of funds for mitigation and preparedness measures, review the development plans of different departments of the State and ensure that prevention and mitigation measures are integrated therein and issue necessary guidelines or directions as may be necessary.

State Executive Committee

The State Executive Committee (SEC) is constituted under the chairmanship of the Chief Secretary to the Government of Assam will assist the State Authority in the performance of its function and coordinate action in accordance with the state guidelines laid down by the State Authority and ensure the compliance of directions issued by the State Government under the Act.

Assam State Disaster Management Authority

(Image)

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District Disaster Management Authority

The District Disaster Management Authority constituted for every district in the State is under the chairmanship of the Deputy Commissioner. The District Authority shall act as the district planning, coordinating and implementing body for DM and take all measures for the purposes of DM in the district as per the guidelines laid down by the National and State Authority.

The District Authority will prepare the District Disaster Management Plans, review capabilities and preparedness measures, give directions to the concerned departments at the district level, organize and coordinate specialized training programmes for different level of officers, employees, voluntary rescue workers and take all such measures as may be appropriate for a holistic and pro-active approach to DM.

Local Authorities

The local authorities include the PRIS, Municipalities, Urban Local bodies, Cantonment boards etc. the local authority will ensure that its officers and employees are trained for disaster management, resources relating to DM are so maintained as to be readily available for use in the event of any disaster situation; construction practices under it or within its jurisdiction confirm to the standards and specifications laid down for prevention of disaster and mitigation; and carrying out relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction activities in the affected areas in accordance with the State Plan and the District Plan.

State Guidelines for Disaster Management

The State Plan is in conformity to the guidelines laid down by NDMA. Given the unique characteristics of the State, prevalent hazards and associated socio-economic risks State Disaster Management Authority shall initiate steps towards preparation of State Disaster Management Guidelines (SDMG). SDMG shall be prepared by ASDMA in consultation with local/district/state authorities and subject experts. The Guidelines shall be approved by SEC.

Partnership arrangement – Involvement of Civil Society Organizations and Private Sector

With the framework of the involvement, DM activities entail support across variety of institutions including the Civil Society Organizations and Private Sector Organizations. Business and industry organizations are aware of the hazard risks in the state. Onsite and offsite plans are a mandatory requirement for all hazardous units.

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The existing emergency plan could expand to include employee injury prevention programmes, community outreach programme (educate people about potential threats), business continuity plan and allocate resources towards hazard specific mitigation. A critical need for coordination and partnership support in DM is being recognized by ASDMA.

Voluntary organizations are involved in providing disaster relief to individuals and families during emergency situation / mass care, in coordination with the State/District administration. Traditional relief and response agencies, community first responders (trained in basic first-aid, search and rescue) and DM Volunteers provide extensive support (knowledge assistance, human resource requirement) to local administration and community during emergency situations.

List of ongoing initiatives

ASDMA has undertaken various activities to build a disaster resilient state. The list highlights selected activities

Flood early warning system (FLEWS)
Hazard Risk and Vulnerability Assessment
Revision of Assam Relief Manual (1976), renamed as Disaster Management Manual
Setting up of Disaster Information and Response Centre at Revenue Circle Level
Involvement of NGO’s and Ex-Service men in DM
Integration of Emergency Helpline Numbers
Revisiting the danger levels of major rivers of Assam
Equipping the Districts for better response during floods
Capacity building and awareness generation
Trainings and workshops for stakeholders (engineers, architects, doctors, PRIS, NGOs, volunteers in first aid & search and rescue)
State wide school safety programme
Technical projects undertaken by knowledge institutions in the State 13. Establishment of Assam Institute of Disaster Management (AIDM)

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Image (Copy from GS-II)

Assam History for Competitive Exam

Assam History for Competitive Exam

Part A: History of Assam

Part B: Geography of Assam

Part D: Economy of Assam

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